伽利略事件

伽利略事件是17世纪初期的一场涉及政治、宗教与科学的争议,核心是天文学家伽利略·伽利雷为日心说辩护。这场争议在天主教会内部以及学术界引发了支持者与反对者之间的对立,并经历了两个阶段:第一阶段是1616年,罗马宗教裁判所的一个审查小组对伽利略进行了讯问并予以谴责;第二阶段是1632年,伽利略再次受审,最终被判软禁在家,其著作也被禁止流通。[1]
1610年,伽利略发表了《星际信使》,介绍了他借助新型、更加强大的望远镜所取得的观测成果,其中包括他发现的木星的“伽利略卫星”。凭借这些观测结果以及随后得出的其他发现(如金星的相位变化),他开始宣传尼古拉·哥白尼在1543年出版的《天体运行论》中提出的日心说理论。伽利略的观点在天主教会内部引发了反对声音。1616年,宗教裁判所宣布日心说在科学上站不住脚,并且属于异端。同年,伽利略提出了潮汐理论,1619年又提出了彗星理论;他曾(错误地)主张潮汐现象可以作为地球运动的证据。
1632年,伽利略发表了《关于托勒密和哥白尼两大世界体系的对话》,在书中为日心说辩护,并将地心说的支持者描绘为“愚人”。这本书引发了极大争议,迫使罗马宗教裁判所于1633年对他展开审判,并裁定他“极其可能为异端”,最终判处其软禁在家。[2]在审判结束后,日心说著作被全面查禁,伽利略也被命令不得再持有、教授日心说观点或为其辩护。[3]
这件事情错综复杂,教宗乌尔巴诺八世最初是伽利略的赞助人和支持者,后来却转而反对他。起初,乌尔巴诺允许伽利略就哥白尼的理论进行出版,只要他将其作为一种假说来对待。然而,在1632年《对话》一书出版后,这层赞助关系便告破裂。[4]后来的科学史学者对这一事件中的诸多误解与错误陈述进行了纠正,还原了更多历史的真实面貌。[2][5][6]
初期争议
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1609年下半年,伽利略开始使用望远镜进行天文观测,并于1610年3月出版了一本小册子《星际信使》,记录了他的一些重大发现:月球上的山脉、环绕木星运行的小卫星,以及此前被认为是天空中朦胧云团(星云)的天体,其实是由大量肉眼无法分辨的微弱星星组成的星群。此后,伽利略还进行了其他观测,包括金星的位相变化和太阳黑子的存在。
伽利略的贡献给当时的神学家和自然哲学家带来了极大困扰,因为他的发现挑战了基于亚里士多德和托勒密理论的科学与哲学观念,而这些观念又与天主教会密切相关。尤其是伽利略对金星位相的观测,证明金星绕太阳运行,以及他发现木星有卫星绕行,这些事实都与罗马天主教会支持并认可的托勒密地心说模型相矛盾,[7][8]反而支持了伽利略倡导的哥白尼日心说模型。[9]
耶稣会的天文学家既精通教会教义,又通晓科学与自然哲学,起初对这些新观点持怀疑甚至敌视态度;但在一两年内,随着优质望远镜的普及,他们也开始重复伽利略的观测。1611年,伽利略访问了罗马学院,当时耶稣会的天文学家们已重复了他的观测。学院中一位学者克里斯托弗·格林伯格对伽利略的理论表示同情,但耶稣会总会长克劳迪奥·阿奎维瓦要求他为亚里士多德的观点辩护。伽利略的一些主张并未完全被接受:当时最著名的天文学家克里斯托佛·克拉乌始终无法接受月球上存在山脉的说法,而学院外的许多人仍对这些观测结果表示怀疑。1610年8月,伽利略在写给开普勒的信中抱怨,[10]一些反对他发现的哲学家甚至拒绝通过望远镜观察,他写道:[11]
我亲爱的开普勒,我真希望我们能嘲笑这群普通人惊人的愚蠢。你怎么看待这学会中的主要哲学家?他们像毒蛇一样固执,不愿意看行星、月亮或望远镜,尽管我已经千百次主动邀请他们观看。确实,就像毒蛇堵住耳朵一样,这些哲学家闭上眼睛,不愿面对真理之光。[12]

1611年,即伽利略访问罗马学院的同一年,他的理论首次引起了罗马宗教裁判所的注意。一个由枢机主教组成的宗教裁判委员会开始调查伽利略的活动,并向帕多瓦了解他是否与帕多瓦大学教授切萨雷·克雷莫尼尼有联系,后者曾被宗教裁判所指控为异端。这次调查标志着伽利略的名字首次被提交给宗教裁判所审查。[13]
那些既验证又接受了伽利略观测结果的地心说支持了,转而采纳了另一种非托勒密式的地心说模型,即几十年前第谷·布拉厄提出的“地日皆心”模型(又称“第谷体系”)。在这种模型中,行星绕太阳运行,而太阳再绕地球运行,从而解释了金星的相位变化等现象,同时仍保留地球作为宇宙中心的地位。第谷曾反对哥白尼的日心说,理由之一是:若该体系成立,恒星距离地球的距离必须是太阳到土星距离的700倍以上。而实际上,距离地球最近的恒星——比邻星——其距离远超第谷估计,约为太阳到土星距离的28000倍以上。此外,在第谷看来,要使这些恒星如此遥远却仍在夜空中可见,它们本身就必须巨大无比——平均尺寸至少要等于地球轨道的直径,甚至远远超过太阳的体积。这在当时看来是极其荒谬的设想。(参见第谷体系和恒星视差的相关条目。)
伽利略曾与耶稣会士克里斯托弗·沙伊纳就太阳黑子的发现优先权发生争执,这场争论最终演变为两人之间长期而激烈的宿怨。然而,实际上他们谁也不是最早发现太阳黑子的人——中国人在几个世纪以前就已经观察并记录了太阳黑子的存在。[14]
在这一时期,伽利略还卷入了一场关于物体在水中浮沉原因的争论。他在这场辩论中站在阿基米德一边,反对亚里士多德的观点。这场辩论气氛紧张,伽利略直率甚至讽刺性的言辞——尽管在当时的学术讨论中并不罕见——却为他树立了不少敌人。在这场争论期间,伽利略的一位朋友、画家洛多维科·卡尔迪·达齐戈里告诉他,有一群恶意反对者正在密谋借“地球运动”等议题找他的麻烦,[15]齐戈里嘲讽性地称这群人是“鸽子联盟”。[16]据齐戈里所言,这些人中的一位曾试图说服一位神父在讲道中公开谴责伽利略的观点,但该神父拒绝了。然而,三年后,另一位神父托马索·卡奇尼确实这样做了——如下面将要描述的那样。
圣经辩论
[编辑]在伽利略与教会发生冲突之前,天主教世界中的大多数受过教育的人都信奉亚里士多德式的地心宇宙观,即认为地球是宇宙的中心,所有天体都围绕地球运转。[17]尽管如此,哥白尼的理论早在1582年为改革教会历法时就已被实际应用。[18]

地静说在多个经文中与圣经的字面解释相符,例如1 Chronicles 16:30、Psalm 93:1、Psalm 96:10、Psalm 104:5、Ecclesiastes 1:5(但参见对Job 26:7的多种解释)。而日心说则认为地球只是行星之一,与其他行星一起绕太阳运行,这一理论不仅违背了地心说,也与当时占主导地位的神学解释相冲突。
伽利略第一次面临异端指控的迹象出现在1613年,来自一位哲学教授、诗人兼希腊文学专家科西莫·博斯卡利亚。[19][20]他在与伽利略的赞助人科西莫二世以及科西莫二世的母亲克莉丝汀·德·洛林交谈时,承认伽利略用望远镜所发现的天文现象是真实的,但坚称地球运动的观念是荒谬的,尤其因为这一观点明显违背《圣经》:
博斯卡利亚博士与夫人(克莉丝汀)谈了一会儿,虽然他承认您在天上所发现的一切事物都是真实的,但他说地球运动是不可置信的,而且不可能发生,特别是因为《圣经》明显反对这种运动。[21]
伽利略当时得到了他的前学生贝内代托·卡斯泰利的当场辩护。卡斯泰利当时已是数学教授兼本笃会修道院院长。他在场后将这次争论的情况报告给了伽利略。伽利略因此决定写信给卡斯泰利,[22]阐述自己对如何妥善解读《圣经》中有关自然现象描述的看法。在这封信中,伽利略强调,圣经的语言往往是通俗而象征性的,不应被用作对自然科学真理的权威裁判。[23]随后在1615年,伽利略将这封信扩展成一篇更长的文字,即《致克莉丝汀大公夫人的一封信》。[24]
道明会修士托马索·卡奇尼应当是第一个对伽利略发起真正危险攻击的人。1614年末,他在佛罗伦萨布道时,公开谴责伽利略、他的同僚,以及广义上的“数学家”(在当时也指天文学家)。[25]他那天讲道所用的圣经经文出自《约书亚记》第10章,其中描述了约书亚令太阳停止运行的故事[25][26]——这正是前一年卡斯泰利在与美第奇家族讨论中不得不加以解释的一段经文。[27]据说(尽管无法证实)卡奇尼还引用了《使徒行传》1:11中的一句话:“加利利人哪,你们为什么站着望天呢?”[28]
首次与神学权威会面
[编辑]1614年末或1615年初,卡奇尼的一位道明会同僚——尼科洛·洛里尼获得了一份伽利略写给卡斯泰利信件的副本。洛里尼和圣马可修道院的其他道明会修士认为这封信在正统信仰上值得怀疑,部分原因是它可能违反了特利腾大公会议的法令:
……为遏制放纵之心,(会议)规定,任何人不得依赖自己的判断,在涉及信仰与道德、关乎基督教教义教化之事务中,曲解圣经、依自己理解加以解释,而应避免与圣教会……过去或现在所持之意义相违……
——特利腾大公会议的法令(1545—1563). 引自Langford, 1992.[29]
洛里尼和他的同僚决定将伽利略的信呈报宗教裁判所。于是,1615年2月,洛里尼将信件的副本寄给宗教裁判所书记官——红衣主教保罗·埃米利奥·斯丰德拉蒂,并在附信中批评了伽利略的支持者:[30]
我们圣马可修道院的所有神父都认为,这封信包含了许多显得自负或令人怀疑的言论,比如其中说到《圣经》的话语并非其字面之意;在关于自然现象的讨论中,《圣经》的权威应当排在最后……(伽利略的追随者们)竟自作主张地依靠自己的理解来解释《圣经》,其方式也有悖于教父们一贯的共同诠释……
——洛里尼致宗教裁判所红衣主教斯丰德拉蒂之信,1615年,引自Langford, 1992[29]
3月19日,卡奇尼来到位于罗马的宗教裁判所办公室,正式控告伽利略宣扬哥白尼学说,以及其弟子传播的其他若干被指为异端的观点。[31]
伽利略很快听说,洛里尼已获得他写给卡斯泰利的信,并声称信中包含诸多异端思想。他也得知卡奇尼前往罗马,怀疑其正在利用那封信挑起事端。[32]随着1615年逐渐过去,伽利略愈发担忧,最终决定在身体状况允许的情况下亲自前往罗马。年末,他恢复健康,他便动身启程。伽利略希望通过亲自陈述自己的立场,洗清一切异端嫌疑,并试图说服教会当局不要压制日心说的思想。 伽利略决定前往罗马,是在违背朋友、支持者以及托斯卡纳驻罗马大使皮耶罗·圭恰迪尼劝告的情况下作出的。[33]
白敏
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当时最受尊敬的天主教神学家之一——红衣主教罗伯·白敏被召来裁决伽利略与其反对者之间的争议。有关日心说的问题最初是在另一宗案件中提到白敏的:加尔默罗会神父保罗·安东尼奥·福斯卡里尼曾出版了一本书《致某人……关于哥白尼观点的信》(Lettera ... sopra l'opinione ... del Copernico),试图调和哥白尼体系与圣经中似乎与之相悖的经文。起初,贝拉明表示认为哥白尼的著作不必被禁,但可能需要经过某些修改,使其仅作为一种“保现象”的数学工具加以呈现——也就是说,仅用来解释天体观测结果。[34]
福斯卡里尼将自己出版的著作寄送给白敏后,后者于1615年4月12日复信回应。[35]在这封信中,伽利略被明确提及,其副本也很快送达了伽利略本人。在开头致意与寒暄之后,白敏对福斯卡里尼说,对于他本人以及伽利略而言,将日心说仅作为一种假设性现象来讨论,而非真实的物理结构,是较为审慎的做法。接着,白敏指出,若将日心说解释为真实的自然事实,“是一件极为危险的事,这不仅会激怒所有经院哲学家和神学家,还可能因使《圣经》显得有误而伤害圣教信仰”。尽管他承认,这一议题本身并非直接涉及信仰,但《圣经》中对该问题的陈述之所以具有关涉信仰的权威性,是因为说话者乃是圣灵。他进一步表示,如果日心说得到了确凿无疑的证明,“那么我们就必须极为谨慎地解释那些看似相反的经文——并且宁愿承认我们对这些经文的理解有限,也不能否认已经被证明属实的理论。”然而,仅仅证明日心说可以“保现象”(即解释观测到的天体现象),并不足以说明其真实有效。白敏认为,做到前者或许可行,但他“极其怀疑”后者是否可能。而在存在怀疑的情况下,便不允许背离圣经的传统解释。最后,白敏还驳斥了福斯卡里尼所举的一个类比——即将地球的运动比作一艘船上乘客的体验:乘客感觉自己静止,而岸边在移动。对此,白敏回应道,在船的情形中,乘客知道这种感知是错觉,因而能够理性地加以修正;但站在地球上的观察者“确实亲身体验到地球是静止的”,因此人们所看到的太阳、月亮和星辰在运行的感知并非错误,不需要加以纠正。[36]
白敏并不反对将日心说作为一种纯粹的假设性计算工具使用,只要不将其当作真实存在的自然现象来看待,他就不认为有什么问题。然而,他也明确指出,在没有确凿的科学证据证明其真实性的情况下,主张日心说为物理现实是不被允许的。这使伽利略陷入了困境。因为在他看来,已有的观测和理论证据已经强有力地支持了日心说,而他也渴望能够公开发表自己的论证,以推动这一学说被接受。[37]
弗朗切斯科·因戈利
[编辑]除白敏外,教廷高阶神职人员弗朗切斯科·因戈利也在当时与伽利略展开了辩论。1616年1月,因戈利向伽利略寄送了一篇论文,批驳哥白尼体系。伽利略后来表示,他认为这篇论文在随后2月对哥白尼学说采取行动的过程中起到了关键作用。[38]哲学家莫里斯·菲诺基亚罗认为,因戈利很可能是受宗教裁判所的委托撰写这篇论文,以作为对日心说争议的“专家意见”,并成为禁令的“主要直接依据”。[39]论文围绕18条物理和数学论证展开,反对日心说,其论据主要借自第谷·布拉厄的批评。其中尤为突出的是第谷的观点:日心说必须假定恒星的大小远远超过太阳。因戈利写道,在日心体系中,恒星所处的巨大距离“明显证明……恒星之大,甚至可能超过或等同于地球轨道的直径”。[40]此外,他还在论文中加入了四条神学论据,但建议伽利略集中回应物理与数学层面的质疑。伽利略直到1624年才对因戈利的论文作出书面回应。在这份回应中,他列举了多项实验结果来支持日心说,其中包括将石头从移动船只的桅杆上投下的实验,用以说明地球运动并不与观测相矛盾。[41]
异端审判与首次裁决,1616年
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审讯
[编辑]1616年2月19日,宗教裁判所要求一组神学家组成的委员会——被称为“审查员”——就日心宇宙观中的若干命题作出评判。[42]关于为何在此时将问题提交给审查员,不同的研究伽利略事件的史学家给出了不同的解释。贝雷塔指出,宗教裁判所在1615年11月曾从贾诺奇·阿塔万蒂处获取了一份供词,[43]作为对洛里尼和卡奇尼控告伽利略案的一部分调查。在这份证词中,阿塔万蒂确认伽利略确实支持哥白尼体系中“太阳静止、地球运动”的学说。因此,宗教裁判所的法庭最终必须对这些学说的神学地位作出裁定。不过,也有另一种可能性——如托斯卡纳驻罗马大使皮耶罗·圭恰迪尼在写给大公的信中所猜测的那样[44]——这次提交可能是伽利略自己“积极奔走、力图阻止哥白尼学说被定罪”的激进行动所促成的直接结果。[45]
判决
[编辑]2月24日,审查员们提交了一份一致通过的报告。他们裁定:关于“太阳静止于宇宙中心”的命题,“在哲学上是愚蠢而荒谬的,在神学上则是“正式的异端,因为它在许多地方明确违背了圣经的本义”;关于“地球运动且不处于宇宙中心”的命题,“在哲学上同样应受谴责;在神学层面,就信仰真理而言,至少是错误的”。[46][47]这份原始报告文献在2014年被公开传播,得以广泛查阅。[47][48]
在宗教裁判所枢机主教们于翌日召开的会议上,教宗保禄五世指示红衣主教白敏向伽利略传达审查结果,并命令他放弃哥白尼的学说;如果伽利略拒不服从,将采取更严厉的措施。于是,1616年2月26日,伽利略被召至白敏的官邸,当场接到命令:
完全不得再教授、辩护或讨论此种学说与观点……必须彻底放弃“太阳静止于世界中心而地球运行”的意见,并自此之后不得以任何方式持有、教授或为之辩护——无论是口头还是书面。

由于别无更好的选择,伽利略接受了宗教裁判所下达的命令,尽管这道命令的严厉程度甚至超过了教宗本人所建议的。[3][50]随后,伽利略再次与白敏会面,二人似乎保持着友好关系;而在3月11日,他还觐见了教宗保禄五世,后者向他保证:只要他还在位,伽利略就不会受到起诉。尽管如此,伽利略的朋友萨格雷多和卡斯泰利报告说,坊间已有谣言称伽利略被迫撤回观点、接受忏悔。为维护自己的名誉,伽利略请求白敏出具一封正式信件,澄清事件的真相。这封信后来在1633年的审判中变得极其重要,因为当时的关键问题之一是:伽利略当年是否仅被禁止“持有或辩护”哥白尼的观点(这仍允许他以假说方式探讨),还是被禁止“以任何方式教授”该学说。倘若宗教裁判所曾禁止伽利略完全讲授日心说,那就等于否定了白敏本人较为宽容、允许将日心说作为假设处理的立场。
最终,伽利略未能说服教会置身事外,反而眼见日心说被正式宣告为错误。由于这一学说违背了《圣经》的字面含义,审查员遂将其定性为“异端”。不过,这一判定虽具有影响力,但在教会层面上并不具有正式的教义约束力。[來源請求]
哥白尼著作被禁
[编辑]在宗教裁判所对伽利略发布禁令之后,教宗的“圣宫首席神学家”下令查禁福斯卡里尼的《信》,并暂停发行哥白尼的《天体运行论》,直至作出必要修正。但教宗主持的“禁书审议团”态度更为严厉。在教宗批准下,该机构于3月5日宣布查禁一切主张哥白尼体系的书籍,称其为“虚假的毕达哥拉斯学说,完全与《圣经》相悖。”[3]
作为教义部的顾问,弗朗切斯科·因戈利建议不要全面查禁《天体运行论》,而应对其进行修订,因其对历法计算具有实用价值。1618年,禁书审议团采纳了他的建议,并于两年后正式发布决定,允许使用经过修订的版本。未经修订的《天体运行论》则继续被列入禁书目录,直至1758年才被解除禁令。[51]
因此,伽利略主张哥白尼学说的著作被禁,他本人也被判决禁止“教授、辩护……或讨论”哥白尼学说。在德国,开普勒的著作同样被教廷禁令查禁。[52]
两个主要世界体系的对话
[编辑]
1623年,教宗额我略十五世去世,教宗乌尔巴诺八世继任。乌尔巴诺八世对伽利略表现出更多的好感,尤其是在伽利略亲自前往罗马祝贺新教宗之后,这种支持更加明显。[53]
伽利略于1632年出版的《关于托勒密和哥白尼两大世界体系的对话》广受欢迎。[54]该书通过三位角色的对话,展开对宇宙体系的辩论:一位支持哥白尼体系的科学家萨尔维阿蒂、一位公正而机智的学者沙格列陀,以及一位固守地心说、思想迟钝、陈词滥调的亚里士多德学派代表辛普利邱。书中将辛普利邱描绘成一个智力低下的愚人,其论点被另外两位角色逐一驳斥和嘲笑。正如扬森所说,这些反驳提供了“无可辩驳的证据”以支持哥白尼学说(至少相对于托勒密学说而言——菲诺基亚罗指出,“哥白尼体系与第谷体系在观测上等效,现有证据可被两者同样解释”[55]),这使辛普利邱陷入困惑与愤怒,作者的立场也变得十分明确。[53]事实上,尽管伽利略在书的序言中说明,辛普利邱这个名字来源于一位著名的亚里士多德学派哲学家(西里西亚的辛普利修斯,意大利语中其名为Simplicio),但在意大利语中,“Simplicio”也有“傻瓜”的含义。[56]作者朗福德和斯蒂尔曼·德雷克认为,辛普利邱的形象借鉴了哲学家洛多维科·德莱·科隆贝和切萨雷·克雷莫尼尼。教宗乌尔巴诺八世要求伽利略在书中加入他的观点,因此伽利略安排这些论述由辛普利邱之口表达。书籍出版数月后,乌尔巴诺八世下令禁止销售该书,并要求对其文本进行特别委员会的审查。[53]
审判与第二次裁决,1633年
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由于《对话》一书使他失去了教廷内的大量支持者,伽利略于1633年被命令接受宗教裁判所的审判,罪名是涉嫌异端,理由是“坚持某些人所宣扬的错误学说——太阳是宇宙中心”,这与1616年的裁决相悖。审判中指出:“教义部于1616年2月25日作出决定……正式命令你放弃此学说,不得向他人传授、辩护或讨论此观点;若你不服从此命令,将被监禁。”[57]
伽利略在身体受到酷刑威胁的情况下接受了审讯。[52]一组由因奇奥费·迈尼海特、阿戈斯蒂诺·奥雷吉和扎卡里亚·帕斯夸利戈组成的神学家小组对《对话》进行了审查。他们的意见强烈支持《对话》宣扬哥白尼学说的观点。[58]
伽利略被判有罪,宗教裁判所于1633年6月22日颁布的判决书[59]包含三个主要内容:
- 伽利略被认定为“极其可疑的异端”,具体指他持有以下观点:太阳静止不动,位于宇宙中心;地球并非宇宙中心且在运动;在《圣经》明确反对的情况下,仍持有并为某种观点辩护,认为其可能为真。他被要求“放弃、诅咒并厌恶”这些观点。[60]
- 他被判处由宗教裁判所决定期限的正式监禁。[61]但次日此刑罚被减为软禁,伽利略在余生中都处于软禁状态。
- 他的《对话》被禁止流传;且在审判中未宣布的一项决定中,他被禁止发表任何作品,包括未来可能撰写的所有著作。[62]
根据流传甚广的传说,伽利略在公开放弃异端观点后,曾低声说出反叛的话语:“地球仍然在转啊”(意大利语原文为“Eppur si muove”)。但实际上并无任何证据证明他曾说过这句话或类似的话。该传说的最早记载出现在他去世百年之后。[63]不过,“Eppur si muove”这句话确实出现在17世纪40年代西班牙画家巴托洛梅·埃斯特万·牟利罗或其画派艺术家的一幅画作中。这幅画描绘了被囚禁的伽利略,似乎正在指向地牢墙上写有这句话的字迹。[64]
经过一段时间与友好的锡耶纳皮科洛米尼共处后,伽利略获准返回位于佛罗伦萨附近阿尔切特里的别墅,在那里软禁度过余生。[65]他继续从事力学研究,并于1638年在荷兰出版了一本科学著作。但他的声誉始终受到质疑。1641年3月,伽利略的追随者和学生温琴蒂奥·雷伊涅里在阿尔切特里写信告诉他,最近一位宗教裁判官强迫一位在佛罗伦萨出版书籍的作者,将书中“最杰出的伽利略”一词改为“知名的伽利略先生”。[66]
不过,部分为了向伽利略致敬,在阿尔切特里成立了首个专注于新实验科学的学院——实验学院。正是在这里,弗朗切斯科·雷迪进行了对照实验,并取得了许多重要进展,这些成果最终推动了启蒙时代的到来。
现代观点
[编辑]历史学家和学者
[编辑]教宗乌尔巴诺八世曾是伽利略的赞助人,并允许他以假说的形式发表关于哥白尼学说的著作。但在1632年出版《对话录》后,这层赞助关系破裂。原因在于伽利略将乌尔巴诺八世为彰显上帝全能所提出的论点,安排由书中一个名叫“辛普利邱”的愚人角色表达,这令教宗极为不满。[4][67]有些证据表明,伽利略的敌人曾说服教宗认为“辛普利邱”是对他的讽刺性刻画,但现代历史学家普遍认为伽利略并无此意。[67]
达娃·索贝尔认为,在此期间,教宗乌尔巴诺八世受到了宫廷权谋和国家事务的影响。他与伽利略的友谊逐渐被对自身遭受迫害的恐惧和担忧所取代。伽利略的问题被宫廷内的知情者和伽利略的敌人向教宗提出,西班牙一位枢机主教曾指责乌尔巴诺八世未能有效捍卫教会。这样的局势对伽利略为其著作进行辩护极为不利。[68]
在1998年出版的《科学错误》一书中,罗伯特·扬森指出,伽利略为了出版一部宣传日心说的书籍,与教会审查官进行了长达两年的斗争。他认为这本书之所以最终得以通过,可能是审查官的懒散或疏忽所致,而该审查官后来也被免职。另一方面,杰尔姆·K·朗福德和雷蒙德·西格则认为,教宗乌尔巴诺八世和宗教裁判所曾正式批准出版《关于托勒密和哥白尼两大世界体系的对话》。他们主张乌尔巴诺八世亲自要求伽利略在书中陈述支持和反对日心说的论据,包括乌尔巴诺本人的观点,并且要求伽利略不要倡导日心说。[4]
一些历史学家强调,伽利略的对抗对象不仅是教会,还包括亚里士多德哲学——无论是世俗的还是宗教性的。[5][69][70][71]
对伽利略科学观点的看法
[编辑]尽管伽利略从未声称自己的论证能直接证明日心说的真实性,但他的论据对这一理论构成了重要支持。[72]根据菲诺基亚罗的说法,一些天主教立场的辩护者曾试图主张,伽利略虽然在事实层面是正确的,但他当时的科学论证薄弱、缺乏充分证据;但菲诺基亚罗否定了这一观点,指出伽利略的一些关键认识论论证如今已被视为科学常识。[73]最终,有力的直接证据确认了地球的运动,这包括:17世纪末牛顿力学的出现;18世纪詹姆斯·布拉德雷对光的恒星视差的观测;19世纪威廉·赫歇尔对双星轨道运动的分析;以及同样在19世纪实现的恒星视差的精确测量。[74][75]不过,梵蒂冈天文台的兼职学者克里斯托弗·格兰尼指出,伽利略的某项观测实际上并不支持哥白尼的日心体系,反而更符合第谷·布拉厄提出的混合模型:即地球静止不动,其他天体绕地球和太阳运行。[76]
雷东迪的理论
[编辑]根据彼得罗·雷东迪在1983年提出的一种具有争议的替代理论,伽利略于1633年被定罪的主要原因并非在于他支持哥白尼学说,而是他对亚里士多德物质说的挑战。[71]雷东迪在梵蒂冈档案馆中发现了一封署名为“G3”的匿名控告信,声称伽利略在1623年出版的《试金者》一书中所支持的原子论,与圣体圣事中的化质说不相容。[77]当时,这项控告似乎被交由神父乔万尼·迪格瓦拉处理,他态度温和,支持伽利略,并最终认定《试金者》中无异端之嫌。[78]然而,耶稣会士奥拉齐奥·格拉西早在1626年便以“Sarsi”的笔名写了一篇神学性批评文章,指责《试金者》中的内容违背教义。根据雷东迪的说法:
- 耶稣会士早已将《试金者》与可能的异端原子论联系起来,而在《对话》中伽利略对物质的论述,更被他们视为他坚持异端原子论的进一步证据,尤其是在化质说问题上的不一致,因此他们以此为由提出抗议。[79]
- 教宗乌尔巴诺八世当时正因对异端态度宽容而受到西班牙枢机主教团的攻击,而他本人又曾鼓励伽利略出版《对话》。若让宗教裁判所的敌对枢机主教得以借“圣体异端”的问题攻击伽利略,将连带使教宗本人陷入困境。
- 因此,乌尔巴诺在禁止《对话》发售后,设立了一个委员会对该书进行审查,[53]表面上是为了替伽利略的庇护者托斯卡纳大公网开一面,避免案件进入宗教裁判所;但其真实意图是阻止任何涉及“圣体异端”的指控被正式提交。为此,教宗将该委员会成员安排为他信任的人,确保他们不会在报告中提及化质争议。[來源請求]该委员会最后作出了对伽利略不利的结论。[53]
雷东迪关于1633年审判背后隐藏动机的假说受到了其他伽利略研究者的批评,并主要被否定。[80]不过,截至2007年,这一观点得到了小说家兼科普作家迈克尔·怀特的支持。[81]
现代天主教会观点
[编辑]1758年,天主教会从《禁书目录》中取消了主张日心说的书籍的一般性禁令。[82]然而,教会并未明确撤销1633年宗教裁判所对伽利略的审判判决,也没有解除对哥白尼《天体运行论》未经审查版本及伽利略《对话》的禁令。[82]这一问题最终在1820年达到高潮,当时教会首席审查官、圣宫首席神学家菲利波·安福西拒绝为天主教神父朱塞佩·塞泰莱的一本书发放出版许可,因为该书公开将日心说视为物理事实。[83]塞泰莱随后向教宗庇护七世上诉。在教廷的禁书审查部和教义部重新审议此案后,安福西的决定被推翻。[83]哥白尼的《天体运行论》和伽利略的《对话》随后也从1835年出版的新一版《禁书目录》中被正式删除。[84]
1979年,教宗若望·保禄二世曾表达希望:“愿神学家、学者与历史学家以真诚合作的精神,更深入地研究伽利略案件,并忠实地承认其中存在的错误,无论这些错误来自何方。”[85]然而,1981年为研究此案而成立的教宗跨学科研究委员会并未得出明确结论。因此,在1992年该项目结束时,教宗发表的讲话内容较为含糊,并未完全实现他在1979年所表达的初衷。[86]
1990年2月15日,红衣主教拉青格(即后来的教宗本笃十六世)在罗马大学发表演讲时,[87]引用了一些当代学者对伽利略事件的看法,称其为“一个典型案例,反映出现代性对自身在科学和技术中的怀疑已经达到何种程度”。[88]作为论据,他援引了几位著名哲学家的观点,包括恩斯特·布洛赫、卡尔·弗里德里希·冯·魏茨泽克以及保罗·费耶阿本德。他特别引用了费耶阿本德的一段话:
当时的教会比伽利略本人更坚持理性,也更顾及其教导在伦理与社会方面的后果。教会对伽利略的裁决是理性且公正的,对这一裁决的修正,仅能以政治上的权宜之计来辩解。[89]
拉青格并未直接表明他是否同意费耶阿本德的说法,但在同一语境中他指出:“基于这些观点构建一套仓促的护教论将是愚蠢的。”[88]
1992年,有报道称天主教会终于开始为伽利略“平反”:[90]
得益于他作为一位杰出物理学家的直觉,以及对不同论据的依赖,伽利略——几乎可以说是实验方法的发明者——理解了为何只有太阳才能作为当时所认知世界的中心,也就是说,作为一个行星系统的中心。当时神学家的错误,在于他们认为我们对物质世界结构的理解,某种程度上必须受《圣经》字面意义的约束……
——教宗若望·保禄二世,《罗马观察报》第44期(第1264号),1992年11月4日
2008年1月,教宗本笃十六世计划访问罗马大学,但引发了学生与部分教授的抗议。他们在一封公开信中表示,教宗在伽利略问题上所表达的观点“冒犯并羞辱了我们,作为忠于理性的科学家,以及作为一生致力于推动与传播知识的教育者。”[91]面对抗议,教宗最终取消了原定的访问。[92]几天后,教廷公布了他原本准备在大学发表的演讲全文。[93]尽管抗议声高涨,但也有不少公众人物对此表示反对并支持教宗的言论自由,其中包括罗马大学院长雷纳托·瓜里尼和时任意大利总理罗马诺·普罗迪。[94]此外,罗马大学教授乔治·伊斯拉埃尔[95]与布鲁诺·达拉·皮科拉也公开发表声明,反对抗议者的立场,为教宗发声。[91]
艺术作品
[编辑]
除了关于伽利略及其审判事件的大量非虚构著作和众多纪录片外,这一题材也多次出现在历史剧和电影中。伽利略博物馆曾整理过一份相关戏剧作品的清单。[96]而关于以电影为中心的整理,则发表于2010年,由克里斯蒂娜·奥利沃托和安东内拉·泰斯塔撰写。[97]
- 《伽利略传》是德国剧作家贝托尔特·布莱希特创作的一部戏剧,存在多个版本,其中包括1947年与演员查尔斯·劳顿共同创作的英文版。[98]《卫报》的剧评人迈克尔·比灵顿称这部作品是“布莱希特的杰作”。[99]导演约瑟夫·洛西执导了1947年英文版的首演,并于1975年将该剧改编为电影正式上映。
参见
[编辑]脚注
[编辑]- ^ Finocchiaro, Maurice A. The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History. University of California Press. 1989-05-19. ISBN 978-0-520-06662-5 (英语).
- ^ 2.0 2.1 Finocchiaro, Maurice A. Introduction. The Trial of Galileo : Essential Documents. Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated. 2014: 1–4. ISBN 978-1-62466-132-7.
..one of the most common myths widely held about the trial of Galileo, including several elements: that he "saw" the earth's motion (an observation still impossible to make even in the twenty-first century); that he was "imprisoned" by the Inquisition (whereas he was actually held under house arrest); and that his crime was to have discovered the truth. And since to condemn someone for this reason can result only from ignorance, prejudice, and narrow-mindedness, this is also the myth that alleges the incompatibility between science and religion.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Heilbron (2010), p. 218
- ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Pope Urban VIII (Maffeo Barberini) (1568–1644). The Galileo Project. Rice University.
Upon Barberini's ascendance of the papal throne, in 1623, Galileo came to Rome and had six interviews with the new Pope. It was at these meetings that Galileo was given permission to write about the Copernican theory, as long as he treated it as a hypothesis. After the publication of Galileo' s Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World, in 1632, the patronage relationship was broken. It appears that the Pope never forgave Galileo for putting the argument of God's omnipotence (the argument he himself had put to Galileo in 1623) in the mouth of Simplicio, the staunch Aristotelian whose arguments had been systematically destroyed in the previous 400-odd pages. At any rate, the Pope resisted all efforts to have Galileo pardoned.
- ^ 5.0 5.1 Jules Speller. Galileo's Inquisition Trial Revisited. Peter Lang. 2008: 55–56. ISBN 978-3-631-56229-1.
Inside the Catholic domain, the first difficulties worth mentioning begin to arise when, toward the end of 1610 or the beginning of 1611, appears the manuscript of an essary written by Lodovico (or Ludovico) delle Colombe Contro il moto della terra. The author is a fierce Aristotelian attacking almost everything coming from Galileo, himself known to be very critical of Aristotelians of his age and having criticized a book of delle Colombe in 1604 (Drake 1980, 50; Blackwell 1991, 59–61).
...
Thus the whole "Galileo affair" starts as a conflict initiated by a secular Aristotelian philosopher, who, unable to silence Galileo by philosophical arguments, uses religion to achieve his aim. - ^ McMullin (2008)
- ^ 7.0 7.1 Ashmand, J. M. Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos; Or, Quadripartite Being Four Books of The influence of the Stars. Library of Alexandria. 2020-09-28. ISBN 978-1-61310-429-3 (英语).
- ^ 8.0 8.1 Kasting, James. How to Find a Habitable Planet illustrated. Princeton University Press. 2010: 4. ISBN 978-0-691-13805-3. Extract of page 4
- ^ Drake, Stillman. Essays on Galileo and the History and Philosophy of Science, Volume 1. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1999: 292. ISBN 978-0-8020-7585-7.
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 162), Sharratt (1994, p. 86), Favaro (1900, 10:421–423) 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期September 27, 2007,. (拉丁語).
- ^ Galileo did not name the philosophers concerned, but Galileo scholars have identified two of them as Cesare Cremonini and Giulio Libri (Drake, 1978, pp. 162, 165; Sharratt, 1994, p. 87). Claims of similar refusals by bishops and cardinals have sometimes been made, but there appears to be no evidence to support them.
- ^ Favaro, (1900, 10:423) 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期July 18, 2011,. (拉丁語). The original Latin reads: "Volo, mi Keplere, ut rideamus insignem vulgi stultitiam. Quid dices de primariis huius Gimnasii philosophis, qui, aspidis pertinacia repleti, nunquam, licet me ultro dedita opera millies offerente, nec Planetas, nec ☽, nec perspicillum, videre voluerunt? Verum ut ille aures, sic isti oculos, contra veritatis lucem obturarunt." A variety of translations of variable quality have appeared in print – Bethune (1830, p. 29), Fahie (2005, p. 102), Lodge (2003, p. 106)[永久失效連結], and de Santillana (1976, p. 9), for example.
- ^ Bucciantini, Massimo; Camerota, Michele; Giudice, Franco (2015). Galileo’s Telescope [Il telescopia di Galileo: Una storia europea]. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-674-73691-7.
- ^ Sharratt (1994, p. 98).
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 180), Favaro (1901) 11:241–242) 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期February 21, 2009,. (義大利語).
- ^ "La legha del Pippione" (Favaro, 1901, 11:476) (義大利語). "The Pigeon" ("il Pippione") was Cigoli's derisive nickname for the presumed leader of the group, Lodovico delle Colombe (Sharratt, 1994, p. 95; Favaro, 1901, 11:176, 11:228–229, 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期February 21, 2009,. 11:502). It is a pun on Colombe's surname, which is the feminine plural form of the Italian word for "Dove." "Pippione" is a now obsolete Italian word with a triple entendre – besides meaning "young pigeon", it was also a jocular colloquialism for a testicle, and a Tuscan dialect word for a fool.
- ^ Blackwell, Richard. Galileo, Bellarmine, and the Bible. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. 1991: 25. ISBN 0-268-01024-2.
- ^ "The Gregorian calendar, first adopted in 1582, was in fact based on computations that made use of Copernicus' work." Thomas Kuhn. The Copernican Revolution
. Harvard University Press. 1957: 125.
- ^ Four Treatises for the Reconsideration of the History of Science, Fabio J. a. Farina
- ^ Heilbron (2010), p. 369
- ^ Langford, Jerome J. Galileo, science, and the church (with foreword by Stillman Drake) 3rd. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 1992: 54. ISBN 0-472-06510-6. – Letter from Benedetto Castelli to Galileo, 1613–14
- ^ Letter from Galileo to Cardinal Dini (May, 1615). [2011-02-06]. (原始内容存档于2011-02-06).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, p. 109).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 112–126).
- ^ 25.0 25.1 Speller, Jules. Galileo's Inquisition Trial Revisited. Peter Lang. 2008: 57–58. ISBN 978-3-631-56229-1.
- ^ Finocchiario, Maurice. The Essential Galileo. Hackett Publishing. 2014: 168–172.
- ^ Mayer, Thomas. The Trial of Galileo, 1612–1633. University of Toronto Press. 2012: 49–55. ISBN 978-1-4426-0519-0.
- ^ Naess, Atle. Galileo Galilei – When the World Stood Still. Springer Science & Business Media. 2006: 89–91. ISBN 978-3-540-27054-6.
- ^ 29.0 29.1 Langford (1992), pp. 56-57
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 240), Sharratt (1994, pp. 110–111), Favaro (1907, 19:297–298) (義大利語).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, p. 111), Favaro (1907, 19:307–311) 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期September 27, 2007,. (拉丁語和義大利語).
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 241), Favaro (1895, 5:291–292) 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期September 27, 2007,. (義大利語).
- ^ Langford, 1992, p. 79
- ^ Blackwell (1991, p. 74), Sharratt (1994, p. 112) "Saving the appearances" meant that the theory could enable astronomers to accurately predict and explain all the empirically observed apparent motions of the Sun, Moon, stars and planets.
- ^ Blackwell (1991, pp. 265–67), Finocchiaro (1989, pp. 67–9). A copy of Finocchiaro's translation of the letter is available on-line.
- ^ Bellarmino, Lettera a Paolo Antonio Foscarini, 12 aprile 1615
- ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 115-25).
- ^ Graney (2015, pp. 68–69) Ingoli's essay was published in English translation for the first time in 2015.
- ^ Finocchiaro (2010, pp. 72)
- ^ Graney (2015, pp. 71)
- ^ Graney (2015, pp. 66–76, 164–175, 187–195)
- ^ Fantoli (2005, p. 118), McMullin (2005b, p. 152), Favaro (1907, 19:320) (義大利語).
- ^ Beretta (2005a, pp. 247–248), Favaro (1907, 19:318) 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期September 27, 2007,. (義大利語).
- ^ McMullin (2005b, pp. 167–168), Drake (1978, p. 252), Sharratt (1994, p. 127), Favaro (1902,12:242) 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期September 27, 2007,. (義大利語).
- ^ An inaccuracy in Guicciardini's letter has led some historians (e.g. Drake, 1978, p. 252; Sharratt, 1994, p. 127) to identify a meeting between Cardinal Orsini and the Pope as the specific incident which triggered the Copernican propositions' referral to the qualifiers. This cannot have been the case, however, because the meeting did not occur until several days after the propositions had been referred to them. (McMullin, 2005b, pp. 152, 153)
- ^ The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History. University of California Press. 1989 [October 29, 2014]. 原始内容存档于September 30, 2007.
- ^ 47.0 47.1 Graney, Christopher M. The Inquisition's Semicolon: Punctuation, Translation, and Science in the 1616 Condemnation of the Copernican System. March 2014. arXiv:1402.6168
[physics.hist-ph].
- ^ Domínguez, Nuño. Una errata reproducida durante siglos cambia la censura de la Iglesia a Galileo. Materia. Feb 2014 [9 August 2016]. (原始内容存档于2 March 2021) (西班牙语).
- ^ Finocchiaro, Maurice A. The Trial of Galileo: Essential Documents revised. Hackett Publishing. 2014: 102. ISBN 978-1-62466-135-8. Extract of page 102
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 253).
- ^ Finnochiario (2007), p. 154
- ^ 52.0 52.1 Finochiario, Maurice. Retrying Galileo. University of California Press. 2007.
- ^ 53.0 53.1 53.2 53.3 53.4 Youngson, Robert M. Scientific Blunders: A Brief History of How Wrong Scientists Can Sometimes Be; Carroll & Graff Publishers, Inc.; 1998; Pages 290–293
- ^ Sobel, Dava. Galileo's Dialogue. The Globe and Mail.
- ^ Finocchiaro (1997), p. 54)
- ^ Finocchiaro (1997), p. 82); Moss & Wallace (2003), p. 11)
- ^ Finocchiaro (1989, p. 288). A copy of this quotation, taken from Finocchiaro's translation of the Inquisition's judgement against Galileo is available online
- ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 172–3]).
- ^ Papal Condemnation (Sentence) of Galileo in 1633. University of Missouri—Kansas City. [21 June 2011].
- ^ Fantoli (2005, p. 139), Finocchiaro (1989, pp. 288–293). Finocchiaro's translation of the Inquisition's judgment against Galileo is available online. "Vehemently suspect of heresy" was a technical term of canon law and did not necessarily imply that the Inquisition considered the opinions giving rise to the verdict to be heretical. The same verdict would have been possible even if the opinions had been subject only to the less serious censure of "erroneous in faith" (Fantoli, 2005, p. 140; Heilbron, 2005, pp. 282–284).
- ^ Finocchiaro (1989, pp.38, 291, 306). Finocchiaro's translation of the Inquisition's judgement against Galileo is available on-line.
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 367), Sharratt (1994, p. 184), Favaro (1905, 16:209, 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期September 27, 2007,. 230) 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期September 27, 2007,. (義大利語). When Fulgenzio Micanzio, one of Galileo's friends in Venice, sought to have Galileo's Discourse on Floating Bodies reprinted in 1635, he was informed by the Venetian Inquisitor that the Inquisition had forbidden further publication of any of Galileo's works (Favaro, 1905, 16:209) (義大利語), and was later shown a copy of the order (Favaro, 1905, 16:230). (義大利語) When the Dutch publishers Elzevir published Galileo's Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences in 1638, some five years after his trial, they did so under the pretense that a manuscript he had presented to the French Ambassador to Rome for preservation and circulation to interested intellectuals had been used without his knowledge (Sharratt, 1994, p. 184; Galilei, 1954 p.xvii; Favaro, 1898, 8:43 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期September 27, 2007,. (義大利語). Return to other article: Galileo Galilei; Dialogue; Two New Sciences
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 356)
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 357)
- ^ On two occasions only during this period he was given permission to travel away from Arcetri. In October 1636 he was permitted to travel to Poggibonsi to meet the French ambassador to Rome, François de Noailles (Sharratt,1994, p. 184; Favaro 1905, 16:507[永久失效連結] (義大利語). In March 1638 he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical treatment, where he spent several months before returning to Arcetri (Sharratt,1994, p. 186; Favaro 1905, 17:290,[永久失效連結] 310–11)[永久失效連結] (義大利語).
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 414)
- ^ 67.0 67.1 See Langford (1966, pp. 133–134), and Seeger (1966, p. 30), for example. Drake (1978, p. 355) asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers, Lodovico delle Colombe and Cesare Cremonini, rather than Urban. He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the Dialogue left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio (Drake, 1953, p. 491). Even Arthur Koestler, who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in The Sleepwalkers (1959), after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue" (1959, p. 483)
- ^ Sobel, Dava (2000, pp. 223–225) [1999]. Galileo's Daughter. London: Fourth Estate. ISBN 1-85702-712-4.
- ^ Riper, A. Bowdoin Van. A Biographical Encyclopedia of Scientists and Inventors in American Film and TV since 1930. Scarecrow Press. 2011: 21. ISBN 978-0-8108-8129-7.
Galileo did not simply reject the Aristotelian model of the universe: he offered concrete evidence that it was wrong. In 1609 and 1610 his use of a telescope for astronomical observation – the first in history – revealed spots on the sun and mountains on the moon that undermined the Aristotelian belief in celestial perfection ... Galileo made enemies with ease – a result of his quick wit, sharp tongue, and distrust of authority. Many of them were priests, as well as astronomers and mathematicians, and found reason to dislike Galileo in both capacities.
- ^ John Lennox. God's Undertaker. Lion Books. 2009: 26. ISBN 978-0-7459-5371-7.
Finally, another lesson in a different direction, but one not often drawn, is that it was Galileo, who believed in the Bible, who was advancing a better scientific understanding of the universe, not only, as we have seen, against the obscurantism of some churchmen, but (and first of all) against the resistance (and obscurantism) of secular philosophers of his time who, like the churchmen, were also convinced disciples of Aristotle.
- ^ 71.0 71.1 Redondi (1983).
- ^ Machamer, Peter. The Cambridge Companion to Galileo. Cambridge University Press. 13 August 1998: 247. ISBN 978-0-521-58841-6 –通过Google Books.
- ^ Finocchiaro, Maurice A. Introduction. The Trial of Galileo : Essential Documents. Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated. 2014: 4–5. ISBN 978-1-62466-132-7.
I am not saying that the various proponents of the anti-Galilean accounts are right when they try to show that his arguments left much to be desired, ranging from inconclusive to weak to fallacious to sophistical. In fact, this evaluation is in my opinion untenable. ... To appreciate the next distinction, let us ask the whether Galileo or the Church was right in regard to the epistemological and methodological aspect of the controversy. Since such issues are normally more controversial than scientific ones, this is an area which some like to exploit by trying to argue that the Church's epistemological and philosophical insight was superior to Galileo's. ... However, such interpretations can be criticized for their exaggeration, one-sidedness, and superficiality in their analysis of the epistemological component of the affair. For example, I have already mentioned that there were at least four epistemological issues in the affair, and I am very doubtful that they can all be reduced to one. Moreover, it cannot be denied that Galileo turned out to be right on at least some of the epistemological issues—for example, those pertaining to the legitimacy of artificial instruments and to the Bible lacking scientific authority.
- ^ Biékowska, Barbara (编). Scientific World of Copernicus: On the Occasion of the 500th Anniversary of his Birth 1473–1973.. Springer. 2013: 63–65. ISBN 978-9401026185.
- ^ Did Galileo have Proof of the Earth's Movement?. Tel-Aviv University.
- ^ Sanderson, Katharine. Galileo backed Copernicus despite data: Stars viewed through early telescopes suggested that Earth stood still
. Nature. 5 March 2010. ISSN 0028-0836. doi:10.1038/news.2010.105.
- ^ Redondi (1983) attributed authorship of this document to Orazio Grassi, the target of attacks by Galileo in The Assayer. However, according to Sergio Pagano (1984, p. 44), a handwriting expert, Fr. Edmondo Lamalle, S.J., who compared its handwriting with that of contemporaneous documents known to have been written by Grassi, declared it "absolutely not sustainable" ("non è assolutamente sostenibile") that they could be of the same hand.
- ^ Wallace (1991, pp. vii, 81–83).
- ^ Redondi acknowledges that there are no surviving documents in which these protests were made explicit. His conclusions are based on complex inferences from indirect evidence.
- ^ Ferrone and Firpo (1986) and Westfall (1989, pp. 58–93) provide comprehensive overviews of some of the criticisms that have been levelled at Redondi's theory. Briefer criticisms can be found in Pagano (1984, pp. 43–48), Gosselin (1985), Westfall (1987), Baumgartner (1989), Drake (1990, p. 179 – footnote), Blackwell (1991, pp. 154–155, footnote 47), Wallace (1991, pp. vii, 67, 81–84), Sharratt (1994, p. 149), Artigas et al. (2005, pp. 214, 222, 225–227), and Beretta (2005b, pp. 192, 202–203).
- ^ White (2007)
- ^ 82.0 82.1 Heilbron (2005, p. 307).
- ^ 83.0 83.1 Heilbron (2005, pp. 279, 312–313)
- ^ Finocchiaro (2005, p.198)
- ^ Segre, Michael. Light on the Galileo Case?. Isis. 1997, 88 (3): 484–504. S2CID 144374316. doi:10.1086/383771.
- ^ Segre, Michael. Galileo: A 'rehabilitation' that has never taken place. Endeavour. 1999, 23 (1): 20–23. doi:10.1016/s0160-9327(99)01185-0.
- ^ An earlier version had been delivered on December 16, 1989, in Rieti, and a later version in Madrid on February 24, 1990 (Ratzinger, 1994, p. 81). According to Feyerabend himself, Ratzinger had also mentioned him "in support of" his own views in a speech in Parma around the same time (Feyerabend, 1995, p. 178).
- ^ 88.0 88.1 Ratzinger (1994, p. 98).
- ^ Ratzinger (1994, p. 98). A partly browsable on-line copy of Ratzinger's text is available at Amazon.com. The page containing the quotation can be obtained by searching on a short extract. An alternative translation (Allen, 2008) 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期May 15, 2008,. is also available on the web. However, Allen's attribution of his translation to a speech supposedly given by Ratzinger in Parma on March 15, 1990 contradicts the attribution given by his source – namely, Ratzinger's speech at La Sapienza on February 15.
- ^ Daniel N. Robinson citing John Paul II in Human nature in its wholeness: a Roman Catholic perspective edited by D. N. Robinson, G. M. Sweeney and R. Gill, Front Cover
- ^ 91.0 91.1 Sapienza Academics Reject Pope's University Address. Corriere della Sera (English edition). 2008-01-15.
- ^ Papal visit scuppered by scholars. BBC News. 2008-01-15.
- ^ The speech Pope Benedict did not deliver. Catholic World News. 2008-01-19.
- ^ Fisher, Ian. Pope cancels speech at university in Rome. Boston Globe. 2008-01-16.
- ^ Rejection of Pope's speech is fear of dialogue between faith and reason, professor says. Catholic News Agency. 2008-01-15 [2008-05-02]. (原始内容存档于2009-02-21).; When Ratzinger Defended Galileo at "La Sapienza". This last citation is a reprint of the original article that appeared in L'Osservatore Romano on January 15, 2008. Scroll down for access.
- ^ Galileo on the Stage. Museo Galileo. 2010 [2015-10-12].
- ^ Olivotto, Cristina; Testa, Antonella. Galileo and the Movies. Physics in Perspective. December 2010, 12 (4): 372–395. Bibcode:2010PhP....12..372O. S2CID 119981584. doi:10.1007/s00016-010-0027-4.
- ^ The American version of Galileo was first included as one chapter of a collection: Bentley, Eric (编). From the Modern Repertoire, Series Two. University of Denver Press. 1952. OCLC 2294084.
- ^ Billington, Michael. A Life of Galileo – review. The Guardian. February 13, 2013.
the real pleasure of Roxana Silbert's modern-dress RSC revival and Mark Ravenhill's slimmed-down translation lies in the absolute clarity with which they put Brecht's masterpiece before us.
参考文献
[编辑]- Artigas, Mariano; Martínez, Rafael; Shea, William R. New Light on the Galileo affair?. McMullin, Ernan (编). The Church and Galileo. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame. 2005: 213–233. ISBN 0-268-03483-4.
- Beretta, Francesco. Galileo, Urban VIII, and the Prosecution of Natural Philosophers. McMullin, Ernan (编). The Church and Galileo. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame. 2005: 234–261. ISBN 0-268-03483-4.
- Beretta, Francesco. The Documents of Galileo's Trial: Recent Hypotheses and Historical Criticisms. McMullin, Ernan (编). The Church and Galileo. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame. 2005: 191–212. ISBN 0-268-03483-4.
- Baumgartner, Frederic J. Galileo Heretic (Book Review). The Sixteenth Century Journal. 1989, XX (2): 309–310. JSTOR 2540675. doi:10.2307/2540675.
- Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys. Making modern science: a historical survey. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2005. ISBN 0-226-06860-9.
- Bethune, John Elliot Drinkwater. The life of Galileo Galilei, with illustrations of the advancement of experimental philosophy. London. 1830.
- Blackwell, Richard J. Galileo, Bellarmine, and the Bible. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. 1991. ISBN 0-268-01024-2.
- Domínguez, Nuño. Una errata reproducida durante siglos cambia la censura de la Iglesia a Galileo. EsMateria.com. 28 Feb 2014 [18 April 2014]. (原始内容存档于2 March 2021).
- Drake, Stillman. Galileo At Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1978. ISBN 0-226-16226-5.
- Drake, Stillman. Galileo: Pioneer Scientist. Chicago, MI: University of Toronto Press. 1990. ISBN 0-8020-2725-3.
- Fahie, John. Galileo His Life and Work. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger. 2005. ISBN 1-4179-6999-7.[永久失效連結]
- Fantoli, Annibale. the Disputed Injunction and its role in Galileo's Trial. McMullin, Ernan (编). The Church and Galileo. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame. 2005: 117–149. ISBN 0-268-03483-4.
- Favaro, Antonio (编). Le Opere di Galileo Galilei, Edizione Nazionale [The Works of Galileo Galilei, National Edition]. Florence: Barbera. 1890–1909. ISBN 88-09-20881-1 (意大利语). A searchable online copy is available on the Institute and Museum of the History of Science, Florence, and a brief overview of Le Opere is available at Finn's fine books[被篡夺], and here.
- Ferrone, Vincenzo; Firpo, Massimo. From Inquisitors to Microhistorians: A Critique of Pietro Redondi's Galileo eretico. The Journal of Modern History. June 1986, 58 (2): 485–524. S2CID 145172760. doi:10.1086/243016.
- Feyerabend, Paul. Killing Time: The Autobiography of Paul Feyerabend. Chicago, MI: University of Chicago Press. 1995. ISBN 0-226-24531-4.
- Finocchiaro, Maurice, Defending Copernicus and Galileo: Critical Reasoning in the two Affairs, Springer, 2010, ISBN 978-9048132003
- Finocchiaro, Maurice A. The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1989. ISBN 0-520-06662-6.
- Finocchiaro, Maurice A. Retrying Galileo, 1633–1992. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 2005. ISBN 0-520-24261-0.
- Graney, Christopher M., Setting Aside All Authority: Giovanni Battista Riccioli and the Science against Copernicus in the Age of Galileo, University of Notre Dame Press, 2015, Bibcode:2015saaa.book.....G, ISBN 978-0-268-02988-3
- Galileo Galilei. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
. Translator: Stillman Drake. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1953. ISBN 0-520-00449-3. - Galileo Galilei; Finocchiaro, Maurice A. Galileo on the World Systems: A New Abridged Translation and Guide. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1997. ISBN 0-520-20548-0.
- Galileo Galilei. Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences. Translators: G Henry Crew and Alfonso de Salvio. New York: Dover Publications Inc. 1954 [1638, 1914]. ISBN 0-486-60099-8.
- Gosselin, Edward A. Galileo Eretico (Book Review). The Sixteenth Century Journal. 1985, XVI (4): 523–524. JSTOR 2541227. doi:10.2307/2541227.
- Heilbron, John L. Galileo. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2010. ISBN 978-0-19-958352-2. OCLC 642283198.
- Heilbron, John L. Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo. McMullin, Ernan (编). The Church and Galileo. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame. 2005. ISBN 0-268-03483-4.
- Koestler, Arthur. The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe. Penguin. 1990 [1959]. ISBN 0-14-019246-8. Original edition published by Hutchinson (London).
- Langford, Jerome K., O.P. Galileo, Science and the Church third. St. Augustine's Press. 1998 [1966]. ISBN 1-890318-25-6.. Original edition by Desclee (New York, 1966)
- Lodge, Oliver. Pioneers of Science. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger. 2003 [1893]. ISBN 0-7661-3500-4.[永久失效連結]
- McMullen, Emerson Thomas, Galileo's condemnation: The real and complex story (Georgia Journal of Science, vol. 61(2) 2003)
- McMullin, Ernan (编). The Church and Galileo. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame. 2005. ISBN 0-268-03483-4. Reference-McMullin-2005.
- McMullin, Ernan. The Church's Ban on Copernicanism, 1616. McMullin, Ernan (编). The Church and Galileo. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame. 2005: 150–190. ISBN 0-268-03483-4.
- McMullin, Ernan. Robert Bellarmine. Gillispie, Charles (编). Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Scribner & American Council of Learned Societies. 2008.
- Moss, Jean Dietz; Wallace, William. Rhetoric & dialectic in the time of Galileo. Washington D.C.: CUA Press. 2003. ISBN 0-8132-1331-2.
- Pagano, Sergio M. (编). I Documenti del Processo di Galileo Galilei. (in collaboration with Luciano, Antonio G.). Pontificiae Academiae Scientiarum Scripta Varia, no. 53, Vatican City. 1984 [2005-07-22]. (原始内容存档于2006-02-26). ISBN 88-85042-11-2.
- Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal. Turning point for Europe? The Church in the Modern World – Assessment and Forecast. translated from the 1991 German edition by Brian McNeil. San Francisco, CA: Ignatius Press. 1994. ISBN 0-89870-461-8. OCLC 60292876.
- Redondi, Pietro. Galileo Heretic. English translation translator: Raymond Rosenthal. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1987 [1983]. ISBN 0-691-08451-3.
- de Santillana, Giorgio. The Crime of Galileo. Midway reprint. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1976 [1955]. ISBN 0-226-73481-1.
- Seeger, Raymond J. Galileo Galilei, his life and his works. Oxford: Pergamon Press. 1966.
- Segre, Michael. Four centuries later: how to close the galileo case?. Physis Riv Int Stor Sci. 2011–2012, 48 (1–2): 53–65. PMID 25029819.
- Speller, Jules, Galileo's Inquisition Trial Revisited , Peter Lang Europäischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Wien, 2008. 431 pp. ISBN 978-3-631-56229-1 / US-ISBN 978-0-8204-8798-4
- Sharratt, Michael. Galileo: Decisive Innovator. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1994. ISBN 0-521-56671-1.
- Wallace, William A. Galileo, the Jesuits and the Medieval Aristotle. Great Yarmouth: Variorum. 1991. ISBN 0-86078-297-2.
- Westfall, Richard S. Galileo Heretic (Book Review). Science. 1987, 237 (4818): 1059–1060. Bibcode:1987Sci...237.1059W. PMID 17837398. doi:10.1126/science.237.4818.1059.
- Westfall, Richard S. Essays on the Trial of Galileo. Vatican City: Vatican Observatory. 1989.
- White, Michael. Galileo antichrist. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 2007. ISBN 978-0-297-84868-4.
外部链接
[编辑]- Galileo Galilei, Scriptural Exegete, and the Church of Rome, Advocate of Science 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期2011-06-08. lecture (audio here) by Thomas Aquinas College tutor Dr. Christopher Decaen
- "The End of the Myth of Galileo Galilei" by Atila Sinke Guimarães
- The Starry Messenger (1610) 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期2012-02-07.. An English translation from Bard College
- Sidereus Nuncius (1610) (拉丁語) Original Latin text at LiberLiber online library.
- Galileo's letter to Castelli of 1613. The English translation given on the web page at this link is from Finocchiaro (1989), contrary to the claim made in the citation given on the page itself.
- Galileo's letter to the Grand Duchess Christina of 1615
- Bellarmine's letter to Foscarini of 1615
- Inquisition documents, 1616 and 1633
- Galileo: Science and Religion Extensively documented series of lectures by William E. Carroll and Peter Hodgson.
- Edizione Nationale (義大利語). A searchable online copy of Favaro's National Edition of Galileo's works at the website of the Institute and Museum of the History of Science, Florence.

