印度人類定居史
印度人類定居史指的是智人遷徙進入印度次大陸的歷史。早期現代人在數萬年間,通過多波遷徙而進入印度定居。[1]第一批移民是隨著65,000年前的南部擴散 (也稱大海岸遷徙,或快速海岸定居)而來,此後又發生南亞和東南亞內部複雜的遷徙。西亞的伊朗狩獵採集者在末次冰期之後、農業開始之前遷徙到南亞。他們與古代南亞狩獵採集者(ancient South Asian hunter-gatherers)一起,建構出印度河谷文明 (簡稱IVC)的人口。IVC的人口是伊朗狩獵採集者和古老祖先南印度人(AASI)混合的結果。
當IVC衰落,以及印歐語系人遷入,促成兩個祖先群體形成:
- 祖先北印度人(Ancestral North Indians,簡稱ANI):他們與當代西歐亞人(West Eurasians)有關。
- 祖先南印度人(Ancestral South Indians,簡稱ASI):他們由"與印度河周邊相關的群體"向南遷徙並與當地狩獵採集者進一步混合而成。
這兩個祖先群體在1,900到4,200年前的某個時間點發生混合,此後轉變為內婚制 。有大量人群在IVC衰落後向南遷徙,這些群體被認為是現代達羅毗荼人的祖先。[2]ASI和ANI群體之間經歷程度很高的混合,而影響次大陸上現代印歐語系人群和達羅毗荼語系人群。同時又有蒙達人和來自東亞的漢藏語系人群的遷入,也為當地加入新的基因元素。
第一批現代人類定居者
[编辑]多巴火山噴發前或後
[编辑]為現代人類最早成功走出非洲的遷徙定年是一個具爭議性的問題。[3]它可能發生在多巴火山爆發)(又稱多巴超級火山爆發,由此導出多巴災難理論(Toba catastrophe theory))之前或之後。多巴火山爆發是距今69,000到77,000年前,在現今的多巴湖(於今日蘇門答臘島)所在地發生的一次超級火山爆發。根據學者Michael Petraglia的觀點,在今日印度安德拉邦的朱瓦拉普拉姆發現位於火山灰沉積層下方的石器,顯示這次擴散發生在多巴火山爆發之前。由於當地尚未發現人類遺骸,尚無法確定創造這些工具人群的身份。[3]支持多巴火山爆發之後才擴散的證據是起源於非洲的單倍群體L3,出現定年約在60,000到70,000年前(遲於火山爆發的時期), "這表明人類在多巴火山爆發後幾千年才離開非洲。"[3]
影響
[编辑]有假說認為大約74,000年前的多巴火山爆發,摧毀印度中部的大部分森林,使其被一層火山灰覆蓋,並可能突然將地球推入一個可能持續長達1,800年的冰河時期,導致全球人類達到近乎滅絕的狀態。[4]如果假說屬實,這或能"解釋遺傳學家認為發生在50,000到100,000年前的明顯人口瓶頸,以及"現存人類之間相對缺乏遺傳多樣性"的現象。.[4]
由於多巴事件被認為具有如此嚴酷的影響,且"特別是用一層厚厚的火山灰將印度次大陸覆蓋", 因此"很難想像印度的第一批殖民者是如何在這場最大的災難中倖存" 。[5]因而過去人們認為所有先前存在於印度的人類都在這次事件期間或之後不久滅絕,這些第一批印度人在"現今人類的DNA中沒有留下任何痕跡" - 這一理論似乎得到遺傳學研究的支持。[6]
多巴火山爆發前出現的工具
[编辑]由牛津大學的學者Michael Petraglia領導的團隊於2009年發表的研究報告,顯示在印度次大陸上的人類可能有部分在這次假設災難中倖存。團隊在多巴火山灰層下方進行"龐貝式的發掘",而發現火山爆發前和爆發後的人類工具和居住地。[7]然而尚未發現屬於這一時期的人類化石,因此對這些早期印度人類的族裔仍一無所知 。[7]最近由研究人員Macauly等人(2005年)[8]和Posth等人 (2016年) [9]發表的研究報告,也支持多巴火山爆發後擴散的觀點。[8]早期石器時代的古人類化石已在今日中央邦的納爾默達河谷(Narmada valley)中發現。其中一些化石的年代可追溯到20萬至70萬年前。尚不確定它們屬於什麼人種。[10]
多巴火山爆發後南部海岸擴散
[编辑]
只有一小群人(可能僅為150到1,000人)大約在70,000到50,000年前[11][9][12][13]穿過紅海。[14]這個穿過紅海的群體沿著阿拉伯和波斯的海岸線,直到抵達印度次大陸。印度似乎是他們第一個主要定居點。[15]遺傳學家Spencer Wells表示,這些早期遷徙者沿著亞洲的南部海岸線前進,然後跨越約250公里 (155英里) 的海洋,並在大約50,000年前在今日的澳洲殖民。Wells說,今日澳洲原住民是第一波遷徙者的後裔。[16]
迄今經確切鑑定,在南亞的最古老智人化石是巴蘭戈達人。他們因在斯里蘭卡的發現地點而得名,至少有28,000年的歷史。[17]
本土雅利安人理論在某些印度教民族主義(印度教性)圈子中很流行,但在經由同行評審的文獻中並未得到任何支持[18]
古老祖先南印度人
[编辑]研究人員Narasimhan等人(2018年)為這些最古老的人類居民引入AASI(Ancient Ancestral South Indian,古老祖先南印度人)的名稱。[note 1]AASI可能與東歐亞人(East-Eurasians),如安達曼人(例如翁奇人)、東亞人和澳洲原住民的共同祖先有遠親關係。[20][21][22][23]根據Narasimhan等人 (2019年) 的觀點, "現今東亞和南亞人的全部祖源(在南亞人與西歐亞人相關的混合發生之前),都源於一次假設的單一東向擴散。這次擴散在短時間內產生出AASI、東亞人、翁奇人和澳洲人的譜系。" [24]這個譜系通常被稱為"東歐亞人"。[25]
與安達曼人的關係
[编辑]多項遺傳學研究發現安達曼島上的原住民與南亞人中發現的祖先成分之間,存在遙遠共同祖先的證據。[20]目前現代南亞人並未發現攜帶有安達曼人中常見的父系譜系,表明某些父系譜系可能已在印度滅絕,或者它們可能非常罕見,且尚未被採樣到。[26]研究人員Chaubey和Endicott(2013年)進一步指出,"總體而言, 安達曼人與東南亞的尼格利陀人的關係比與現今南亞人的關係更為密切" 。[27][note 2]
研究人員Shinde等人(2019年)發現安達曼人或東西伯利亞狩獵採集者都適合充當AASI的代表,"因為它們在久遠的歷史中存在共同祖先"。[28]根據研究人員Yelmen等人(2019年)的觀點,南亞本土遺傳成分(即AASI)與安達曼人的不同,且沒有密切關係,因此安達曼人是AASI不完美且不精確的代表。根據Yelmen等人的說法,,在北印度古吉拉特人身上未檢測到安達曼人成分(由安達曼翁奇人代表),因此他們認為南印度潘尼亞人(他們被認為主要具有AASI祖源)將比安達曼翁奇人更適合作為現代南亞人中"南亞本土遺傳成分"的代表。[29]
根據Narasimhan等人(2019年)的觀點,南亞人中的"AASI"成分與安達曼人(以翁奇人為例)共享一個共同根源,且與翁奇人、東亞人和澳洲原住民都有遠親關係(這些群體和AASI在大約同一時間點發生深層的祖先分化。[23]他們共同歸屬於東歐亞譜系(East-Eurasian lineage)。
與"尼格利陀人"的關係
[编辑]現今的安達曼人被認為是"尼格利陀人"的一部分,尼格利陀人是指居住在東南亞偏遠地區的幾個不同族群。[30]基於尼格利陀人族群間體貌相似性,曾被視為一個單一、相互關聯的人群,但將不同族裔的人群僅根據身高和膚色的相似性捆綁在一起,使用尼格利陀人這一標籤的適當性受到質疑。[31]最近的研究顯示尼格利陀人包含幾個不同的獨立群體,同時也證明他們與非洲的俾格米人沒密切的親緣關係。[32]
根據研究人員Vishwanathan等人(2004年)的觀點,典型的"尼格利陀人"特徵也可能是通過趨同演化發展而來。[33]根據研究人員Gyaneshwer Chaubey和Endicott(2013年)的觀點, "以目前的基因解析度來看,沒有證據表明傳統上被定義為尼格利陀人中不同的群體具有單一的祖先群體" 。[27]研究人員Basu等人(2016年)總結認為安達曼人具有獨特的祖源 ,且與其他南亞人沒密切關係,但他們與東南亞尼格利陀人更為接近,這表明南亞人群並非直接源自尼格利陀人。[34]
斯里蘭卡維達人
[编辑]現代維達人的祖先群體可能是斯里蘭卡最早的居民。他們的抵達時間暫定在大約40,000到35,000年前。他們在遺傳上可與斯里蘭卡其他民族區分開來,且他們表現出高度的群體內多樣性。這與他們長期分為小型亞群存在,並經歷顯著的遺傳漂變的歷史呈現一致。[35][36]
研究人員Raghavan等人(2013年)所做的一項研究,顯示維達人與斯里蘭卡和印度的其他群體,特別是僧伽羅人和坦米爾人具有密切的親緣關係。他們還發現土著維達人和其他南亞人群兩者,與現代歐洲、中東和北非的人群之間存在深層的親緣關係(即兩者都源自相同的、早期的走出非洲的遷徙人群)。[37]
末次盛冰期
[编辑]人類數目在末次盛冰期之後,開始增長並開始遷徙。隨著農業發明 (即所謂的新石器革命),能餵飽更多的人口。金屬 (銅、青銅、鐵) 的使用進一步改變人類的生活方式,為早期使用者提供最初的優勢,並促進進一步的遷徙和混合 。
根據研究人員Silva等人(2017年)的觀點,在末次冰期之後,多波來自西歐亞的遷徙進入南亞,時間跨越農業出現之前和之後。[38]根據研究人員Narasimhan等人(2019年)研究報告中的觀點,與伊朗狩獵採集者相關的人群在農業出現之前就已存在於南亞。他們與古老祖先南亞人(AASI)混合,形成印度河谷的居民。隨著印度河谷文明於公元前1900年後衰落,以及印度-雅利安人蒞臨,IVC人群與遷入的印度-雅利安人混合,形成祖先北印度人(ANI)。其他IVC人群則與AASI混合,形成祖先南印度人(ASI)。[19][39][40][41]
這兩個祖先群體在印度於4,200到1,900年前(公元前2200年 – 公元100年) 發生混合,之後轉變為內婚制,[41]這可能是由於印度笈多王朝期間,當地社會價值觀和規範"的強制執行"後的結果。[22]研究人員Reich等人指出, "ANI祖源在印度的比例介於39%至71%之間,,且在傳統的上層種姓、尚武種族和印歐語系使用者中更高。" [39]
Basu等人(2016年)指出,印度大陸還包含另外兩種不同的祖先成分,這些成分也對印度次大陸的基因庫增加豐富度。[note 3]分別為祖先南亞語系人(Ancestral Austro-Asiatic, AAA)和祖先藏緬語系人(Ancestral Tibeto-Burman,ATB)。[22]
印度-雅利安人遷徙前西歐亞祖源
[编辑]農耕前的伊朗狩獵採集者
[编辑]Narasimhan等人(2019年)和Shinde等人(2019年)兩組人撰寫的報告,總結認為西歐亞祖源在南亞農業出現之前就已在當地存在。[note 4]
研究人員Metspalu等人(2011年)在印度檢測到一個遺傳成分 - k5,它分佈於印度河流域、中亞和高加索地區。[43]根據Metspalu等人(2011年)的說法,k5"可能代表ANI(祖先北印度人)的遺傳殘跡" 。研究者也指出該成分在印度境內的地理梯度"非常微弱, 這在ASI-ANI模型下出乎人們的意料",並解釋說根據ASI-ANI模型,ANI在基因庫中的程度會越往南越為遞減。[44]根據Metspalu等人(2011年)的觀點,"無論該成分源自何處(高加索、近東、印度河流域或中亞),它擴散到其他地區的時間必定發生在12,500年前,遠超過我們檢測能力的極限。[45]
Metspalu在接受印度的電子雜誌《Fountain Ink》採訪時表示, "印度人中的西歐亞成分似乎來自於一個在基因上與實際居住在歐亞大陸的人群發生分化的群體,且這種分化發生在至少12,500年前" 。[web 1][note 5]Moorjani等人(2013年)引用Metspalu(2011年)的研究,[note 6]稱其"未能找到在過去12,500年內ANI與西歐亞群體之間存在共同祖先的任何證據" 。[50]印度細胞與分子生物學中心(CCMB)研究員Thangaraj則認為"那是在更久遠之前",且"ANI是可能是在40,000年前的第二波遷徙中進入印度"。[note 7]"[web 1]
印度新石器時代農民的可能遷徙
[编辑]
根據研究人員Gallego Romero等人(2011年)的觀點,他們對印度乳糖耐受性的研究顯示"Reich等人(2009年)所確定的西歐亞遺傳貢獻,主要反映流向伊朗和中東的基因流動" 。[51]Gallego Romero指出,具有乳糖耐受性的印度人所表現出的這種耐受性相關的基因模式是"典型的印度常見突變"。[52]根據Gallego Romero的說法,這表明"最常見的乳糖耐受性突變在不到10,000年前從中東向兩個方向遷徙。當突變在歐洲傳播時,另一批遷徙者必然將突變向東帶到印度 - 很可能是沿著波斯灣沿岸行動,因為在那裡也發現具有相同突變的其他小群體。[52]
根據Broushaki等人(2016年)的觀點,證據顯示新石器時代農民的成分構成許多現代南亞人的主要祖源。這些新石器時代的農民大約在10,000年前從新月沃土,最有可能是從現代伊朗境內札格羅斯山脈附近的一個地區,遷徙到南亞。[53][54]
梅赫爾格爾遺址(涵蓋時間從公元前7000年到約公元前2500年),位於印度河谷的西部,[55]是印度河谷文明的前身。這個遺址的居民遷徙進入印度河谷,發展成為印度河谷文明。[56]它是南亞最早擁有農業和畜牧業證據的文明遺址之一 。[57][58]根據學者Lukacs和Hemphill的觀點,雖然梅赫爾格爾的新石器時代和銅石並用時代(也稱紅銅時代)文化之間存在強烈的延續性,但牙齒證據顯示銅石並用時代的人口並非源自梅赫爾格爾的新石器時代人口,[59]這"暗示其中有中等程度的基因流動"。他們進一步指出,"梅赫爾格爾新石器時代居民的直系後裔可在梅赫爾格爾的南部和東部,即印度西北部和德干高原的西緣找到"。新石器時代的梅赫爾格爾與位於梅赫爾格爾南部的銅石共用時代伊納姆岡遺址(位於今日的馬哈拉什特拉邦,該邦大部分地區位於德干高原上)表現出更大的親緣關係,卻不和銅石共用時代的梅赫爾格爾有更大的親緣關係.[59]
印度河谷文明
[编辑]Shinde等人(2019年)和Narasimhan等人(2019年)對來自印度河谷文明(青銅時代印度西北部和東巴基斯坦的部分地區)的人類遺骸以及來自周邊文化的"異類群體"進行分析 ,結論為IVC人口是與伊朗牧民和AASI(古老祖先南印度人)相關人群的混合體。[19]
唯一擬合的雙組分模型是:一個與伊朗西部札格羅斯山脈牧民相關的群體,與安達曼狩獵採集者,或是東西伯利亞狩獵採集者中任一群體的混合(後兩個人群 - 即伊朗牧民相關群體,或安達曼/東西伯利亞群體)都能擬合的事實,這兩個人群都可作為祖先南印度人 (AASI) 的代表成分,因為它們與非西歐亞祖源成分具有相同的深層祖先關係[28]
根據Shinde等人(2019年)的研究,約有50%至98%的IVC基因組來自與早期伊朗農民相關的人群,另有2%至50%的IVC基因組來自與安達曼人共享共同祖源的南亞本土狩獵採集者。[28]Narasimhan等人(2019年)的研究發現IVC基因組由45%至82%的伊朗農民相關祖源和11%至50%的AASI(與安達曼人相關的狩獵採集者)祖源組成。[19]Narasimhan等人(2019年)的研究報告,總結認為這種伊朗農民相關的祖源與伊朗農業人群有親緣關係, 但兩者有所不同 ,前者(伊朗農民相關祖源)缺乏在公元前6000年後伊朗農民中常見的安納托利亞農民相關祖源。[42][note 8]這些與伊朗農民相關的人群可能在北印度農業出現之前就已進入印度,[42]並在公元前5400年至3700年間,即在成熟IVC時期出現之前,就和與印度狩獵採集者相關的人群發生混合。[62]
這兩項研究所分析的樣本中,幾乎不含或完全不含與後來印歐語系人群遷徙到印度相關的"草原祖源"(Steppe ancestry)成分。研究報告撰寫者發現各個祖源的分別比例在個體之間有顯著的差異,所得的結論是需要更多樣本才能獲得印度人口歷史的全貌。[28][19]
埃蘭語-達羅毗荼語假說
[编辑]雖然印度河谷文明與早期達羅毗荼人聯繫在一起,但一些學者提出這些人的新石器時代農民祖先可能在大約10,000年前從札格羅斯山脈遷徙到南亞北部。[63]根據學者David McAlpin的觀點,達羅毗荼語系是通過來自埃蘭(於今日伊朗西南部) 的移民而帶到印度。[64][65][66][67]美國語言學家富蘭克林‧切斯特‧索思沃斯也表示達羅毗荼語系起源於伊朗西部,且已有的相關出版物和研究是"[達羅毗荼語系與埃蘭語之間關係]可行性的進一步證據。[68]根據學者Renfrew和Cavalli-Sforza的觀點,原始達羅毗荼語是由來自新月沃土的伊朗部分農民帶到印度的。[69][70][71][note 9]但最近Heggerty和Renfrew(2014年)發表的研究報告指出,"McAlpin對語言數據的分析,以及因此提出的主張,仍遠非正統觀點",並補充說Fuller發現達羅毗荼語系與其他語言沒有關係,因此假設它應該是起源於印度本土。[72]Renfrew和Bahn在發表的研究報告中總結認為,目前有幾種關於達羅毗荼語起源的假設(即起源於埃蘭語,或是於本土獨立發展)都有證據支持,但由於缺乏確鑿的證據,語言學界尚未形成共識,尚無最終定論.[72][note 10]
印歐雅利安人
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在公元前二千年,來自辛塔什塔文化[79][80]的人群,經由巴克特里亞·馬爾吉亞納文明體(Bactria-Margiana culture,簡稱BMAC)遷徙進入印度次大陸北部(即現代的印度、巴基斯坦、孟加拉國和尼泊爾)。印度-雅利安人的遷徙始於大約公元前1800年,在馬拉二輪戰車發明之後,同時也將印度-雅利安語系帶到黎凡特及可能還有中亞。[81][82][note 11]
原始印歐伊朗人,即印度-雅利安人發展的源頭,被認為與辛塔什塔文化(公元前2100–1800 年)和安德羅諾沃文化相關聯。安德羅諾沃文化約在公元前1800–1400年在鹹海周圍的大草原(即現今的哈薩克斯坦、烏茲別克斯坦和土庫曼斯坦)興盛過。原始印歐伊朗人受到安德羅諾沃文化南部的BMAC影響,而從中借鑒其獨特的宗教信仰和習俗 。印度-雅利安人大約在公元前1800–1600年從伊朗人中分離出來,[84]此後印度-雅利安人遷徙進入黎凡特和印度西北部,可能還包括中亞。
研究人員Lazaridis等人(2016年)指出,草原相關人群對南亞的人口有實質性的影響 ,並且為北印度人口中一個主要成分。[85]Lazaridis等人於2016年發表的研究報告,其中估計所有現代南亞人中都含有6.5%至50.2%的草原相關基因混合成分,其中較高種姓和講印度-雅利安語的群體比其他群體擁有更多的草原混合成分。[note 12]
IVC之後:印度人口中的ANI和ASI祖先成分
[编辑]於2009年至2019年發表的一系列研究報告,提出印度次大陸人口包含兩個主要的祖先成分,[39][40][41]於公元前二千年形成 ,[19]。分別為:
- 祖先北印度人(ANI): 它與當代西歐亞人有密切關係。
- 祖先南印度人(ASI): 它與任何外部人群都不同(即ASI的基因成分在世界上任何其他已知的人群中都是獨特的或無法直接找到)。[39][19][note 13]
ANI是由IVC人群和來自草原的移民混合形成。[19]而ASI則是由向南遷徙並與當地狩獵採集者進一步混合的IVC人群所形成。[19]
這些IVC人群不帶有草原混合成分,而是主要由新石器時代伊朗相關祖源和少量AASI祖源的混合體組成。根據Narasimhan等人(2019年)的觀點,ASI人口的基因構成由大約73%的AASI和大約27%的伊朗相關人群組成。這一估計與Reich等人的研究結果相似,他們在2018年指出,ASI具有一個西歐亞祖源成分(源自伊朗相關農民),Reich估計該成分約佔ASI祖源的25%(在他最初2009年的分析中未被檢測到),而ASI剩餘的75%祖源則來自南亞本土的狩獵採集者。[86]
ANI是由IVC人群和來自青銅時代草原的移民混合形成。{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2019}}Lazaridis等人(2016年)[note 14]指出草原相關人群對南亞的人口影響巨大。根據研究結果,馬拉人 - 一個南印度達利特種姓族群,沿著"印度基因梯度"具有最少的ANI成分,但仍含有約18%的草原相關祖源,顯示出ANI祖源在所有印度人口中的強大影響。巴基斯坦的卡拉什人被推斷約有50%的草原相關祖源,其餘則來自伊朗農民祖源 。[87][note 15]Reich等人指出"ANI祖源在印度的比例介於39%至71%之間,且在傳統的上層種姓和印歐語系使用者中有更高的佔比"。[39]而羅爾人這個現代人群種姓的基因樣本,較其他相鄰的種姓,是最接近印度河流域附近的首批史前和早期歷史南亞古代的。他們因而被認為是祖先北印度人(ANI) 的一個現實代表。羅爾人群也帶有相似的草原相關、AASI、東部狩獵採集者(加上新石器時代安納托利亞農民)祖源,且他們與新石器時代的伊朗人親緣關係較少。在未來對南亞人群進行人口學建模時,羅爾人群可合理地被用作ANI的替代代表。[88]
南亞語系人
[编辑]
根據學者Ness的說法,關於南亞語系人群的起源有三個廣泛的理論,即印度東北部、中國中部或南部,或是東南亞。[89]多項研究顯示印度中部的南亞語系人群源自全新世期間來自東南亞的遷徙(主要為男性)。[90][91][92][93][94][note 16]根據研究人員Van Driem(2007年)的說法:
粒線體圖譜顯示蒙達人的母系譜系源自印度次大陸最早的人類定居者 ,而主要的Y染色體單倍群則支持東南亞是印度南亞語系人群的父系來源地。[95]
根據研究人員Chaubey等人(2011年)的觀點, "現今印度的南亞語系人群源自於從東南亞而來的擴散,隨後與印度本地人群發生廣泛的性別特異性混合。[91][note 17]根據研究人員Zhang等人 (2015年)的觀點,南亞語系人群 (男性) 從東南亞到印度的遷徙發生在末次盛冰期之後(大約在4000年前)。[93]根據研究人員Arunkumar等人(2015年)的觀點,Y染色體單倍群O2a1-M95是南亞語系人群的典型特徵,在從寮國到印度東部的範圍內明顯遞減,且"擴張時間呈現從東向西的序列遞減",具體為寮國的5.7± 0.3千年前,印度東北部的5.2 ±0.6$千年前,以及印度東部的4.3 ± 0.2$千年前。這表明O2a1-M95譜系是從寮國向西擴散的新石器時代晚期才出現。[94][96]
根據研究人員Riccio等人(2011年)的觀點,蒙達人很可能源自東南亞的南亞語系移民 。[92][97]根據Ness的說法,卡西族可能在公元前一千年遷徙進入印度。 [89]
根據一項包含語言分析的遺傳學研究(2015年),結果顯示原始南亞語系群體起源於東亞 ,他們首先遷徙到東南亞,隨後進入印度。[93]
漢藏語系
[编辑]根據研究人員Cordaux等人(2004年)的觀點,漢藏語系可能在過去4,200年內從喜馬拉雅山脈和次大陸的東北邊界傳入印度。[98]
居住在黃河中上游流域的古代人群於大約10,000年發展出東亞最早的新石器時代文明之一,是現代漢藏語系人群的祖先。[100]人類基因中單倍群O2-M122主要發現在喜馬拉雅山脈和印度東北部具有漢藏祖源的男性中,而在印度東北部以外的其他語系人群中通常不具有。單輩群O-M134是O-M122之下的一個子譜系,在尼泊爾的塔芒族中具有很高的百分比(86.6%),在印度東北部的藏緬語系群體 ,包括阿迪人、那加人、阿帕塔尼人和尼西人中也具有相似的頻率(約85%).[101]藏緬語系的擴散在阿薩姆邦貫穿布拉馬普特拉河(上游為中國的雅魯藏布江)河谷,與單倍體O-M134父系譜系相關,[102]}}此譜系在博多人中以85%的高頻率出現,在拉巴人中則為76.5%.[103][105]它在卡西族中具有顯著的存在(29%), 而在印度的其他南亞語系人群中通常不存在,但在其鄰近的藏緬語系群體加羅人中則有55%的比例.[106]
在喜馬拉雅山脈的南坡上,有種類繁多的漢藏語系語言。已確定的較大群體包括喜馬偕爾邦和尼泊爾西部的西喜馬拉雅語支,尼泊爾西部的達芒語支(說塔芒語的有一百萬人),以及尼泊爾東部的基蘭特語支。其餘的群體較小,且有數個孤立語。
尼泊爾中部的尼瓦爾語有一百萬使用者(其文學作品可追溯到12世紀之前), 且有近一百萬人說馬嘉爾語支,但其餘的語言群體規模都很小。尼泊爾的其他孤立語和小型語群包含有杜拉語、拉吉-勞特語、切邦語和迪馬利什語。絨巴語分佈在從尼泊爾東部到不丹西部的地區。[107]不丹的大多數語言是藏語羣,但它也擁有三個小型孤立語:奧萊語、洛克普語和工德語 ,以及一個較大,說倉洛語的群體。[108]
語言與遺傳祖源的交叉現象
[编辑]在研究不同的人群群體時,一個複雜因素是印度境內的遺傳和語言間的關係僅部分相關 ,特別是在南亞語系相關人群採用非南亞語系鄰居的語言情況之下。例如,雖然庫魯克人具有南亞語系相關的祖源,但他們使用的庫魯克語卻是達羅毗荼語。[109]比爾人和貢德人經常被歸類為"南亞語系"群體,[110]但比爾語是印歐語,而貢德語則是一種達羅毗荼語(可能與IVC有關,或是在極古老的時期從埃蘭傳入)。[109]另一方面,卡西族和尼科巴人被認為是蒙古人種(與使用漢藏語系有關聯) ,[111][112]而蒙達人和桑塔爾人則是"南亞語系"群體,[113][114]但四個群體都說南亞語。[111][112][113]
參見
[编辑]- 南亞的遺傳學與考古遺傳學
- 《早期印度人:我們祖先的故事及我們的起源》,一本2018$年出版的非虛構類書籍
- 早期人類遷徙
- 安達曼人
- 伊魯拉斯人
- 移民到印度
- 印度-雅利安人遷徙
- 按人群劃分的單倍群R1a頻率列表
註記
[编辑]- ^ ASI was synonymous to AASI before 2018.[19]
- ^ Chaubey and Endicott (2013):[27]
- "these estimates suggest that the Andamans were settled less than ~26 ka and that differentiation between the ancestors of the Onge and Great Andamanese commenced in the Terminal Pleistocene." (p.167)
- "In conclusion, we find no support for the settlement of the Andaman Islands by a population descending from the initial out-of-Africa migration of humans, or their immediate descendants in South Asia. It is clear that, overall, the Onge are more closely related to Southeast Asians than they are to present-day South Asians." (p.167)
- ^ Basu et al. (2016): "By sampling populations, especially the autochthonous tribal populations, which represent the geographical, ethnic, and linguistic diversity of India, we have inferred that at least four distinct ancestral components—not two, as estimated earlier have contributed to the gene pools of extant populations of mainland India."[22]
- ^ According to Narasimhan et al. (2019) Iranian farmer related people arrived before 6000 BCE in Pakistan and north-west India, before the advent of farming in northern India. They suggest the possibility that this "Iranian farmer–related ancestry [...] was [also] characteristic of northern Caucasus and Iranian plateau hunter-gatherers."[42]
- ^ Note that according to Jones et al. (2015), Caucasian Hunter Gatherers and "the ancestors of Neolithic farmers" split circa 25,000 years ago: "Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG) belong to a distinct ancient clade that split from western hunter-gatherers ~45 kya, shortly after the expansion of anatomically modern humans into Europe and from the ancestors of Neolithic farmers ~25 kya, around the Last Glacial Maximum. CHG genomes significantly contributed to the Yamnaya steppe herders who migrated into Europe B3,000 BC, supporting a formative Caucasus influence on this important Early Bronze age culture."[46]
- ^ The reference is to a "recent study", and gives Kivisild et al. (1999). Kivisild (1999) does not mention the number 12,500, nor does it explicitly make such a statement. What it does state is that western-Eurasian and Indian mtDNA lineages overlap in haplogroup U;[47] that the split between the western-Eurasian and Indian U2 lineages appeared circa 53,000 ± 4,000 years before present;[47] and that "despite their equally deep time depth, the Indian U2 has not penetrated western Eurasia, and the European U5 has almost not reached India."[48] They further note that wester-Eurasian mtDNA lineages did spread in India at the time of the spread of agricultural crops from the fertile Crescent.[49] Metspalu et al. (2011) do refer to 12,500 years ago.[45] Apparently, the reference to Kivisld (1999) is incorrect, and was not noticed by the authors.
- ^ After the initial settlement of India by the ASI.
- ^ Narasimhan et al.: "[One possibility is that] Iranian farmer–related ancestry in this group was characteristic of the Indus Valley hunter-gatherers in the same way as it was characteristic of northern Caucasus and Iranian plateau hunter-gatherers. The presence of such ancestry in hunter-gatherers from Belt and Hotu Caves in northeastern Iran increases the plausibility that this ancestry could have existed in hunter-gatherers farther east."[42] Shinde et al. (2019) note that these Iranian people "had little if any genetic contribution from ... western Iranian farmers or herders";[60] they split from each other more than 12,000 years ago.[61] See also Razib Kkan, The Day of the Dasa: "it may, in fact, be the case that ANI-like quasi-Iranians occupied northwest South Asia for a long time, and AHG populations hugged the southern and eastern fringes, during the height of the Pleistocene."
- ^ Derenko: "The spread of these new technologies has been associated with the dispersal of Dravidian and Indo-European languages in southern Asia. It is hypothesized that the proto-Elamo-Dravidian language, most likely originated in the Elam province in southwestern Iran, spread eastwards with the movement of farmers to the Indus Valley and the Indian sub-continent."[71] Derenko refers to:
- Renfrew (1987), Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins
- Renfrew (1996), Language families and the spread of farming. In: Harris DR, editor, The origins and spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, pp. 70–92
- Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi, Piazza (1994), The History and Geography of Human Genes.
- ^ The Elamite-hypothesis has drawn attention in the scholarly literature, but has never been fully accepted:
- According to Mikhail Andronov, Dravidian languages were brought to India at the beginning of the third millennium BCE.[73]
- Kivisild et al. (1999) note that "a small fraction of the West Eurasian mtDNA lineages found in Indian populations can be ascribed to a relatively recent admixture"[47] at c. 9,300 ± 3,000 years before present,[74] which coincides with "the arrival to India of cereals domesticated in the Fertile Crescent" and "lends credence to the suggested linguistic connection between the Elamite and Dravidic populations."[74]
- According to Palanichamy et al. (2015), "The presence of mtDNA haplogroups (HV14 and U1a) and Y-chromosome haplogroup (L1) in Dravidian populations indicates the spread of the Dravidian language into India from west Asia."[75]
According to Krishnamurti, Proto-Dravidian may have been spoken in the Indus civilization, suggesting a "tentative date of Proto-Dravidian around the early part of the third millennium."[76] Krishnamurti further states that South Dravidian I (including pre-Tamil) and South Dravidian II (including Pre-Telugu) split around the eleventh century BCE, with the other major branches splitting off at around the same time.[77]
- ^ Pathak et al. (2018) concluded that the Indo-Aryan speakers of Gangetic Plains and some Dravidian speakers in central India have significant Yamnaya Early-Middle Bronze Age (Steppe_EMBA) ancestry. The "North-Western Indian and Pakistani" populations (PNWI) showed additionally significant Steppe_MLBA ancestry along with Yamnaya (Steppe_EMBA) ancestry. The study also suggested that the Rors could be used as a proxy for the ANI.[83]
- ^ Lazaridis et al. (2016) Supplementary Information, Table S9.1: "Kalash – 50.2%, Tiwari Brahmins – 44.1%, Gujarati (four samples) – 46.1% to 27.5 %, Pathan – 44.6%, Burusho – 42.5%, Sindhi – 37.7%, Punjabi – 32.6%, Balochi – 32.4%, Brahui – 30.2%, Lodhi – 29.3%, Bengali – 24.6%, Vishwabhramin – 20.4%, Makrani – 19.2%, Mala – 18.4%, Kusunda – 8.9%, Kharia – 6.5%."
- ^ Basu et al. (2016) discern four major ancestries in mainland India, namely ANI, ASI, Ancestral Austro-Asiatic tribals (AAA) and Ancestral Tibeto-Burman (ATB).[34]
- ^ According to Lazaridis et al. (2016) ANI-related ancestry in South Asians can be modeled as a mix of ancestry related to both early farmers of Iran and to people of the Bronze Age Eurasian steppe (Yamnaya component).[87]
- ^ Lazaridis et al. (2016) Supplementary Information, Table S9.1: "Kalash – 50.2 %, Tiwari Brahmins – 44.1 %, Gujarati (four samples) – 46.1 % to 27.5 %, Pathan – 44.6 %, Burusho – 42.5 %, Sindhi – 37.7 %, Punjabi – 32.6 %, Balochi – 32.4 %, Brahui – 30.2 %, Lodhi – 29.3 %, Bengali – 24.6 %, Vishwabhramin – 20.4 %, Makrani – 19.2 %, Mala – 18.4 %, Kusunda – 8.9 %, Kharia – 6.5 %."
- ^ Nevertheless, according to Basu et al. (2016), the AAA were early settlers in India, related to the ASI: "The absence of significant resemblance with any of the neighboring populations is indicative of the ASI and the AAA being early settlers in India, possibly arriving on the "southern exit" wave out of Africa. Differentiation between the ASI and the AAA possibly took place after their arrival in India (ADMIXTURE analysis with K = 3 shows ASI plus AAA to be a single population in SI Appendix, Fig. S2).[22]
- ^ See also:
- Origin of Indian Austroasiatic speakers. Dienekes Anthropology Blog. 2010-10-27.
- Khan R. Sons of the conquerors: the story of India?. Gene Expression. 2010 [2016-03-31]. (原始内容存档于2016-04-11).
- Khan R. Phylogenetics implies Austro-Asiatic are intrusive to India. Gene Expression. 2013 [2016-03-31]. (原始内容存档于2016-03-24).
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. ... Our coalescence analysis suggests that the expansion of Sino-Tibetan speakers to northeast India most likely took place within the past 4,200 years ...
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... over one million speakers each: Bhili (Indo-Aryan) 4.5 million; Santali (Austric) 4.2 m; Gondi (Dravidian) 2.0 m; and Kurukh (Dravidian) 1.3 million ...
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... The Bhils are one of the largest tribes concentrated mainly in Western Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Eastern Gujarat and Northern Maharastra. Racially they were classified as Gondids, Malids or Proto-Australoid, but their social history is still a mystery (Bhatia and Rao, 1986) ...
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存档于2013 -01-05). ... The Khasis are one of the Indo-Mongoloid tribes in Northeast India. They speak the Monkhmer language, which belongs to the Austro-Asiatic group (Das, 1978) ...
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