混合政權
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混合政權(英語:Hybrid regime)[a]是一種政治體制,通常是由威權政體向民主政體(或反之)的不完全民主轉型所致。混合政權被定義為兼具專制特徵和民主特徵的政體,可以同時進行政治鎮壓和定期選舉。根據一些定義和衡量標準,混合政權通常出現在自然資源豐富的發展中國家,例如石油國家。 [10][8][11]儘管這些政體會經歷內亂,但它們可能在數十年內相對穩定且頑強。冷戰結束後,混合政權有所興起。 [12][13]
「混合政權」一詞源自於一種反對專制或民主二分法的政治體權多元化觀點。 [14] 現代學術界對混合政體的分析關注民主制度的裝飾性(例如,選舉不會導致權力更迭、不同的媒體傳播政府觀點、議會反對派與執政黨投票方式相同等等)。 [15] 由此得出結論,民主倒退、向威權主義的過渡是混合政權最普遍的根源。 [16] 一些學者也認為,混合政權可能模仿完全獨裁。 [17][18]
整體而言,研究人員對於如何定義或衡量混合政權尚未達成共識。因此,關於哪些國家應被視為混合政權存在很大分歧,任何對典型混合政權的描述都需要放在具體的定義和衡量標準背景下看待。 [19]
定義
[编辑]學者們根據其主要學科對混合政權的定義各不相同。 [20] Christoph Mohamad-Klotzbach 認為:「有些學者認為,民主不足和專制不足可以被視為混合政權的例子,而另一些學者則認為混合政權兼具民主政體和專制政體的特徵。」[3] 學者們也爭論這些政體是處於穩定期還是本質上是一個穩定的政治體系。 [21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28]
1995年,特里·卡爾提出了「混合」政權的概念,簡單地定義為「結合了民主和威權主義元素」。 [29]
根據 Matthijs Bogaard 教授的說法,混合類型是[30]
不是減弱的亞型,因為它們並不缺乏特徵的充分發展,而是表現出兩種基本類型的特徵的混合,因此它們同時結合了專制和民主的維度或制度
Pippa Norris将混合政權定义为:[31]
这一体制的特点是行政权力制衡薄弱,选举存在缺陷甚至暂停,反对派力量四分五裂,国家限制媒体自由、知识分子和民间社会组织,限制司法独立并无视法治,安全部队侵犯人权,容忍威权价值观。
Henry E. Hale将混合政權定义为;[32]
一种将部分民主元素和部分专制元素以显著方式融合的政治体制。然而,它并非一个“折中”的类别:混合政權有其独特的动态机制,并非简单地将民主政体的一半加上专制政体的一半。
Leonardo Morlino将混合政權定义为;[33]
一套持续存在了大约十年的制度,无论其稳定与否,都先于威权主义、传统政体(可能带有殖民特征)或甚至最低限度的民主而存在,其特点是有限的多元化和独立自主的参与形式的瓦解,但至少缺乏最低限度民主的四个方面中的一个
Jeffrey C. Isaac 教授将混合体制定义为:[34]
混合政權有一个共同点,即它们都存在竞争,尽管掌权的政治精英会故意重新安排国家法规和政治舞台,以获得不正当的优势
指標
[编辑]
根據吉列尔莫·奥唐纳、菲利普·C·施米特、拉里·戴蒙德、托马斯·卡罗瑟斯等學者的看法,混合政權的特徵有:[27][36]
- 擁有民主政權外在屬性,比如選舉、多黨制、合法的反對黨等。
- 在政治決策過程中,公民利益的代表性不足(這意味諸如工會等公民團體的失能,或是受國家控制)。
- 政治參與程度低。
- 宣示性、或形式上的政治權利與自由,要實際執行這些權利與自由會有困難。
- 公民對政治機構的信任度低。
過渡的形式
[编辑]專制化
[编辑]
民主化
[编辑]脚注
[编辑]- ^ 學者使用各種術語來涵蓋完全專制與完全民主之間的「灰色地帶」。[1] 這些術語包括:競爭性威權主義、半威權主義、混合威權主義、選舉威權主義、自由專制、代表民主、非自由民主、指導性民主、半民主、不充分民主、有缺陷的民主和混合民主。[2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9]
- ^ Other names include: democratic decline,[39] de-democratization,[40] democratic erosion,[41] democratic decay,[42] democratic recession,[43] democratic regression,[39] and democratic deconsolidation[44]
參見
[编辑]參考文獻
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