犯罪被害恐懼感
| 犯罪學 |
|---|
| 子領域 |
| 學派 |
| 理论 |
| 概念議題 |
| 相关学科 |
犯罪被害恐懼感[1][2]或犯罪恐懼[3](英語:Fear of Crime),是指害怕成为犯罪受害者的情緒,但這情緒不見得能反應實際成為犯罪受害者的可能性。
歷史
[编辑]︁犯罪被害恐懼感的研究自1960年代末開始出現長足的進展。[4]大衛·加蘭(David Garland)指出,犯罪被害恐懼除了肇因於犯罪率上升與實際受害的體驗外,在1960年代的美國和1980年代的英國發生各種引人注目的犯罪事件,以及1980年代與藥物濫用相關的犯罪──其犯罪者常被形容為「有動力堅決實行盲目暴力,並任其驅使」──也推升這類情緒。[5]
促成因素
[编辑]︁犯罪被害恐懼感的影響要素除了能區分為對犯罪的感覺、想法、行為外,還能區分為:對犯罪情境的恐懼、實際經歷該犯罪的恐懼感、對犯罪文化與社會意義的深入理解、以及社區犯罪的象徵與意涵等。[6][7]
影響︁犯罪被害恐懼感的因素主要有風險認知心理學[8][9]、對犯罪受害風險言論(其主要透過人際溝通與大眾媒體傳播)、公眾對社群穩定與崩潰性的看法[10][11]、社區環境影響等[12][13][14]。廣義而言,對犯罪表達焦慮,也是在對社會變遷的速度和方向表達焦慮。[15][16]
除此之外,部份文化因素也可能促成︁犯罪被害恐懼感:比方說,有些人認為現代社會使個人對安全問題格外敏感。[17][4][18][19] 相關調查在訪問对犯罪表達愤慨的人時,通常会询问對方害怕犯罪的什麼、以及對其有多擔憂。受訪者的回答通常隱含「恐懼」的兩大向度:
- 當人受威胁时所油生的焦慮情緒;
- 一種瀰漫性的風險焦慮氛圍
一份於英格蘭與威爾斯調查的研究發現,約有30-50%的人,會多少擔心自己成為犯罪的受害者;但是在深入研究後,調查發現很少有人會成天擔憂自身安全。[20][21]專家因此得出人可以把恐懼感[a]、以及更廣泛的焦慮,兩者明確區分出來的結論。[22][23]Sutton的研究也發現有些人更可能坦承自己的弱點與憂慮。[24]
與不特別害怕犯罪的人相比,容易成為受害者的人更可能認為自己的保護能力較弱、自我效能感较低、覺得犯罪的后果更嚴重、並自認更容易成為犯罪目标。[25]Warr(1987)认为各個犯罪間的「風險敏感性」(sensitivity to risk)並不相同,而且會因為犯罪間的嚴重性不同,而有相當程度的差異。[26]
一手與第二手經驗
[编辑]聽聞過犯罪事件的經過、以及身邊有認識的犯罪被害者的人,對犯罪的風險認知會顯著提昇。[10][27][28][29]這樣的傾向一般會被稱為「犯罪強化器」(crime multiplier):意即犯罪事件的影響,會在社區環境的運作下而「擴散開來」。[30]Skogan注意到:「……很多社區的居民會透過可能被誇大、淡化、或扭曲的渠道來間接理解犯罪。」[31]
對社區的看法
[编辑]公眾對社區混亂、社会凝聚力、集体效能有多擔憂,會和︁犯罪被害恐懼感有所相關。[32][12]犯罪的发生率與风险,和社会稳定、道德共识、支撑社区社会秩序的集体非正式控制过程等感知问题有关。[33]諸如「年轻人闲逛」、「社区精神差」、「信任和凝聚力低下」等日常问题,除會油生對相關風險的感知外,也會對環境中開始抱持不安全感或不信任感(不文明行为表明公共场所缺乏传统礼仪和社会秩序低下)。[34][35][36]此外,也有公眾透過犯罪被害恐懼表達更廣泛的憂慮,比如社区崩溃、道德权威丧失、文明和社会资本崩溃等。[16][37][38]
在相同的社会和物质环境的人,可能会得出不同的结论:两个相鄰並居住在同一社区的人,对當地局勢的看法可能大相径庭。[39][40]英国的一些研究表明,对社会变革速度和方向的更广泛的社会焦虑,可能会改变人们对环境中模糊刺激的容忍度。[7]扣除该环境的实际条件後,對法律和秩序持有威權观点、或担心社区长期恶化的人,可能更容易感知到其环境中的混乱。他们也更有可能将物质线索与社会凝聚力和共识问题、社会纽带质量下降、以及非正式社会控制联系起来。[37]:5
媒體
[编辑]
一定程度上,公眾對犯罪的理解,是受大眾媒體的報導所影響:人通常從媒體和人際交流中,理解犯罪的樣貌——犯罪者、受害者、動機、以及對后果严重、难以控制且駭人聽聞的犯罪行为等。如果报纸读者对其描述的受害者表示认同、或認為自己所在的社区,与媒體所描述的社区相似,那么風險的樣貌就可能被接受、予以个人化,并转化为个人安全担忧:這個概念被稱之為「刺激相似性」(stimulus similarity)。[41]
犯罪被害恐懼和大眾媒體的關係和因果排序,在學術上並無共識:是因为电视上播放了很多犯罪内容,所以人會害怕犯罪?還是說,媒體只是迎合閱聽人對犯罪的恐懼,提供相關的新聞呢?[42][页码请求]
部份研究表明,媒體會選擇性報導犯罪,扭曲了閱聽人對犯罪的看法。[43]:4部份学者认为,犯罪被害恐懼比犯罪本身更严重;[43]:3也有人暗示媒体加剧了恐惧气氛的产生,实际受害频率,事實上只是潜在犯罪的极小一部分。[2]
罗伯特·莱纳(Robert Reiner)发现从1955年到1991年,在英国虚构电视剧中,犯罪剧集的比例大約在25%左右,但新闻报道则有所增加。[44]:206克莱夫·埃姆斯利认为報紙是追求利润的商业实体,因此与轻微犯罪相比,報紙一直都不成比例地討論嚴重犯罪。[45]
2022 年,Lee等人发现,媒體的碎片化有助於抵抗可能放大犯罪被害恐懼的「維持法律與秩序」言論。[46]
与犯罪率的关系
[编辑]虽然犯罪被害恐懼往往会随着犯罪率的上升而增加,但当犯罪率下降时,这种恐惧往往不会迅速下降。 [30][47]泰勒和黑尔还认为,在犯罪被害恐懼程度相似的社区,犯罪率可能会有显著差异。[30]
大卫·加兰(David Garland)认为,即使犯罪率下降,犯罪也可能成为「既定的文化事实」,并受到文化脚本(cultural scripts)支持。[47]有政府發現由於犯罪本身和犯罪被害恐懼是兩回事,所以他們除了致力减少犯罪本身外,也會致力减少犯罪被害恐懼。[48]
影响
[编辑]犯罪被害恐懼會產生重大的心理和社会影响,並影响公共政策[47]和建筑环境[49]。研究表明,犯罪被害恐懼會降低公眾对政府、甚至如民主政体那般的政体支持率。[50]
犯罪被害恐懼本身會損害个人福祉和社区凝聚力。[51]具體的影響實例,包含有人因為害怕犯罪,而减少了運動或社交等健康的日常活动和习惯。[52][53]
參見
[编辑]註解
[编辑]- ^ 恐懼感在這裡的定義是「因為意識到危險,所產生的驚恐情緒」(an emotion or feeling of alarm or dread caused by an awareness or expectation of danger)
參考資料
[编辑]- ^ 劉建宏; Steven Messner; 張樂寧; 卓越. 犯罪被害恐懼感產生機制-社區失序的作用. 犯罪與刑事司法研究. 2008-10-01, (11). doi:10.29861/CCJI.200810.0002.
- ^ 羅鼎程. 臺灣保護性社會工作員犯罪被害恐懼感之探索性研究. 社區發展季刊. 2015-09-01, (151): 282–306.
Clarke(1997)認為,犯罪被害恐懼感(fear of crime)係指「人們對其所知覺到的潛在傷害與危險情境,產生的一種情緒反應」。
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- ^ Garland, David. The culture of control: crime and social order in contemporary society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2001: 10. ISBN 978-0-226-28383-8.
Fear of crime has come to be regarded as a major social problem...Fear of crime has come to be regarded as a problem in and of itself, quite distinct from actual crime and victimization, and distinctive policies have been developed that aim to reduce fear levels, rather than to reduce crime.
- ^ Vilalta, Carlos J. Fear of crime in gated communities and apartment buildings: a comparison of housing types and a test of theories
. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment. June 2011, 26 (2): 107–121. Bibcode:2011JHTRW..26..107V. ISSN 1566-4910. doi:10.1007/s10901-011-9211-3 (英语).
- ^ Fernandez, Kenneth E.; Kuenzi, Michele. Crime and Support for Democracy in Africa and Latin America
. Political Studies. June 2010, 58 (3): 450–471. ISSN 0032-3217. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9248.2009.00802.x (英语).
- ^ Jackson, J. & Stafford, M. (2009). Public health and fear of crime: A prospective cohort study. British Journal of Criminology, 49, 6, 832-847
- ^ Stafford, M., Chandola, T., & Marmot, M. (2007). Association between fear of crime and mental health and physical functioning. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 2076-2081.
- ^ Rader, Nicole, Fear of Crime
, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Oxford University Press, 2017-03-29 [2024-04-28], ISBN 978-0-19-026407-9, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.013.10 (英语)
延伸閱讀
[编辑]- 謝靜琪. 犯罪受害恐懼:以社會心理學的取向來探討(E87110)【原始數據】. 中央研究院人文社會科學研究中心調查研究專題中心學術調查研究資料庫. 2000. doi:10.6141/TW-SRDA-E87110-1.
外部链接
[编辑]- "Fear of Crime and Perceived Risk." by Oxford Bibliographies Online: Criminology