草稿:吠陀宗教
.png)
| 印度教系列模板 |
| 印度教 |
|---|
 |
| 民族学单元系列 |
| 印欧学 |
|---|
 |
吠陀宗教，又称为吠陀教或婆罗门教，有时也被称为古印度教或吠陀印度教[a]，是西北印度次大陆（旁遮普地区与恒河平原西部）部分印度-雅利安人在吠陀时期（约公元前1500年至前500年）流行的宗教思想与实践[3][4][5][6]。这些思想与实践可见于吠陀文献中，其中一些吠陀仪式至今仍持续实行[7][8][9]。吠陀宗教是印度教历史中塑造现代印度教的主要传统之一，尽管今日的印度教与历史上的吠陀宗教已大为不同[5][10][a]。
吠陀宗教的起源可追溯至印伊人的文化与宗教，特别是来自辛塔什塔文化（约前2200年至1750年）与安德罗诺沃文化（约前2000年至1150年）在欧亚大草原的传统[11][b]。这一印伊宗教从巴克特里亚·马尔吉阿纳文明体（BMAC，约前2250年至1700年）中汲取了独特的宗教信仰与实践[12][c]。当时游牧的印度-雅利安部族曾在中亚南方的该地区停留，作为一个独立族群。之后，这些印度-雅利安部族迁徙至印度次大陆西北部，并于早期吠陀时期（约公元前1500年至1100年）在当地发展出受印度河流域文明（前2600年至1900年）残存文化影响的吠陀宗教，作为印度-雅利安宗教的一种变体。[13]
至晚期吠陀时期（约前1100年至500年），婆罗门教由吠陀宗教中发展而出，成为俱卢－般遮罗政权的意识形态；在该政权解体、并被非吠陀的摩揭陀文化圈取代后，婆罗门教影响力扩及更广地区。当婆罗门教与恒河东岸的非吠陀印度-雅利安宗教传统（同时也孕育出佛教与耆那教）以及在地信仰结合时，成为形塑现代印度教的重要来源之一[1][2][14][15][a]。
吠陀宗教的具体仪式与祭祀包括：苏摩仪式；伴随供品（护摩）的火焰崇拜仪式；以及马祭[16][17]。自《梨俱吠陀》时期起，即可见火葬与土葬两种丧葬仪式[18]。吠陀宗教所崇拜的神祇包括特尤斯、因陀罗、阿耆尼、楼陀罗与伐楼拿等，其重视的伦理观念则包括“谛”与“法”。
术语
[编辑]吠陀教与婆罗门教
[编辑]公元前第二千纪开始，多批印度-雅利安人进入了印度河流域，并带来最早期的吠陀宗教，此类早期吠陀宗教被统称为“吠陀教”（Vedism）。“婆罗门教”（Brahmanism）则是晚期吠陀时期发展而成的宗教形式，约于公元前1000年在恒河流域逐渐成形。[19][d]。根据Heesterman的说法：“这一时期（的吠陀宗教）广泛地被称为婆罗门教，是因为它赋予婆罗门阶级在宗教与法律上的重要地位。”[19] 在晚期吠陀时期，梵书与早期奥义书陆续成书[20]。吠陀教与婆罗门教皆视《吠陀》为神圣经典，但婆罗门教具有更大的包容性，纳入许多超越《吠陀》的教义与主题，如寺庙崇拜、供养、冥想、出世、素食、上师制度，以及其他对印度教宗教生活而言重要的非吠陀要素[19]。
古印度教与吠陀印度教
[编辑]“古印度教”（ancient Hinduism）与“吠陀印度教”（Vedic Hinduism）这些术语也常用来指称古代的吠陀宗教[a]。
根据海因里希·冯·施蒂滕克龙的说法，19世纪的西方出版物中，吠陀宗教被认为与印度教有所区别，且两者并无关联。当时的主流观点认为，印度教与印度史诗及往世书相关，并透过基于祭官制度、怛特罗密教与“巴克蒂”（虔信运动）等宗派传承下来[21]。面对西方殖民与基督新教传教活动的冲击，19世纪末至20世纪初的印度教改革运动，如梵社运动与新吠檀多派，反对往世书传统中的“迷信”，认为那是对吠陀传统的背离，并提倡回归《吠陀》，试图复兴一种他们所构想的[22]原始、理性、单一神的“古印度教”，以与基督新教地位对等[21][23]。
到了20世纪，由于新印度教强调其吠陀根源，加上对吠陀宗教本身及其与现代印度教之共享传统与神学的理解日益深入，学者们开始视历史上的吠陀宗教为现代印度教的先驱。[21] 历史上的吠陀宗教现今普遍被认为是现代印度教的前身，但两者并不相同，因文本证据显示两者之间存在显著差异。[a] 这些差异包括吠陀宗教原本信仰死后生命，而非后来发展出的转世与轮回概念[24]。然而，尽管“历史上通常认为，现代印度教的起源约在西元初期”，当时“各种关键倾向与核心要素汇聚形成了印度教传统”[25]，但部分学者也开始主张，“印度教”一词应涵盖吠陀教与婆罗门教，以及后来的综合体[26]。
起源与发展
[编辑]印度-雅利安吠陀宗教
[编辑]吠陀宗教是指部分吠陀时期印度-雅利安人部族（ārya）的宗教信仰[27][28][e]。这些部族于印度河流域文明衰亡之后迁徙至印度次大陆的印度河流域。[3][b] 吠陀宗教与后来的婆罗门教，以《吠陀》经典中的神话与仪式思想为核心，与依据非吠陀文本发展出的阿迦摩教派、怛特罗密教以及各种宗派性印度宗教形式有所区别。[3]
吠陀宗教内容载于吠陀文献中，并与大量的吠陀文学（包括早期的奥义书）相关，这些文献由各祭司学派传承至今。[3][30] 该宗教于早期吠陀时期（约公元前1500年至1100年）在恒河平原西部地区存在，[31][f] 并于晚期吠陀时期（约公元前1100年至500年）发展为婆罗门教。[15][34]
恒河平原东部地区则由另一支印度-雅利安文化主导，其拒绝后期婆罗门教的意识形态，并孕育出耆那教与佛教，以及后来的孔雀王朝。[1][2]
Indo-European roots and syncreticism
[编辑]The Indo-Aryans were speakers of a branch of the Indo-European language family which originated in the Sintashta culture and further developed into the Andronovo culture, which in turn developed out of the Kurgan culture of the Central Asian steppes.[11][b][g] The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE.[54]
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesized Proto-Indo-European religion,[55][h] and shows relations with rituals from the Andronovo culture, from which the Indo-Aryan people descended.[27] According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.[56] It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements"[56] which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"[12] from the Bactria–Margiana culture (BMAC).[12] This syncretic influence is supported by at least 383 non-Indo-European words that were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink soma.[57] According to Anthony,
Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.[40]
The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, are found in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom.[58] The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving.[58] The Old Indic term r'ta, meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the Rig Veda, was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom.[58] Old Indic gods, including Indra, were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.[59][60][61]
South Asian influences
[编辑]The Vedic religion was the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations".[62] White (2003) cites three other scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley civilization.[63]
It is unclear if the theory in diverse Vedic texts actually reflect the folk practices, iconography, and other practical aspects of the Vedic religion. The Vedic religion changed when Indo-Aryan people migrated into the Ganges Plain after 约 1100 BCE and became settled farmers,[15][64][65] further syncretizing with the native cultures of northern India.[2][页码请求][3] The evidence suggests that the Vedic religion evolved in "two superficially contradictory directions", namely an ever more "elaborate, expensive, and specialized system of rituals",[66] which survives in the present-day srauta-ritual,[67] and "abstraction and internalization of the principles underlying ritual and cosmic speculation" within oneself,[66][68] akin to the Jain and Buddhist tradition.
Aspects of the historical Vedic religion still continue in modern times. For instance, the Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals, and the complex Vedic rituals of Śrauta are practised in Kerala and coastal Andhra.[69] The Kalash people residing in northwest Pakistan also continue to practise a form of the ancient Vedic religion.[67][i] It has also been suggested by Michael Witzel that Shinto, the native religion of Japan, contains some influences from the ancient Vedic religion.[74][75]
Brahmanism
[编辑]
“Brahamic”重定向至此。关于the writing scripts，请见“Brahmic scripts”。“Brahmanism”重定向至此，您可能想寻找页面Branhamism。Historical Brahminism
[编辑]Brahmanism, also called Brahminism or Brahmanical Hinduism, developed out of the Vedic religion, incorporating non-Vedic religious ideas, and expanding to a region stretching from the northwest Indian subcontinent to the Ganges valley.[3][15] Brahmanism included the Vedic corpus, but also post-Vedic texts such as the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras, which gave prominence to the priestly (Brahmin) caste of the society,[3] Heesterman also mentions the post-Vedic Smriti (Puranas and the Epics),[3] which are also incorporated in the later Smarta tradition. The emphasis on ritual and the dominant position of Brahmins developed as an ideology in the Kuru-Pancala realm, and expanded over a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala kingdom[15] and its incorporation into the Magadha-based empires. It co-existed with local religions, such as the Yaksha cults.[2][76][77]
The word Brahmanism was coined by Gonçalo Fernandes Trancoso (1520–1596) in the 16th century.[78] Historically, and still by some modern authors, the word 'Brahmanism' was used in English to refer to the Hindu religion, treating the term Brahmanism as synonymous with Hinduism, and using it interchangeably.[79][80] Michael S. Allen criticises the use of "Brahminism" for the "greater Vedic tradition", arguing that it obscures the contribution of non-Brahmins to the tradition.[81] In the 18th and 19th centuries, Brahminism was the most common term used in English for Hinduism. Brahmanism gave importance to Absolute Reality (Brahman) speculations in the early Upanishads, as these terms are etymologically linked, which developed from post-Vedic ideas during the late Vedic era.[4][82][83][84] The concept of Brahman is posited as that which existed before the creation of the universe, which constitutes all of existence thereafter, and into which the universe will dissolve, followed by similar endless creation-maintenance-destruction cycles.[85][86][87][j]
The post-Vedic period of the Second Urbanisation saw a decline of Brahmanism.[88][89] With the growth of political entities, which threatened the income and patronage of the rural Brahmins including; the Sramanic movement, the conquests of eastern empires from Magadha including the Nanda Empire and the Mauryan Empire,[90][91] and also invasions and foreign rule of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent which brought in new political entities.[34] This was overcome by providing new services[92] and incorporating the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and local religious traditions, giving rise to contemporary Hinduism.[34][14][2][1][15][3][a] This "new Brahmanism" appealed to rulers, who were attracted to the supernatural powers and the practical advice Brahmins could provide,[92] and resulted in a resurgence of Brahmanical influence, dominating Indian society since the classical Age of Hinduism in the early centuries CE.[34]
As a polemical term
[编辑]Nowadays, the term Brahmanism, used interchangeably with Brahminism, is used in several ways. It denotes the specific Brahmanical rituals and worldview as preserved in the Śrauta ritual, as distinct from the wide range of popular cultic activity with little connection with them. Brahminism also refers specifically to the Brahminical ideology, which sees Brahmins as naturally privileged people entitled to rule and dominate society.[93] The term is frequently used by anti-Brahmin opponents, who object against their domination of Indian society and their exclusivist ideology.[94] They follow the outline of 19th century colonial rulers, who viewed India's culture as corrupt and degenerate, and its population as irrational. In this view, derived from a Christian understanding of religion, the original "God-given religion" was corrupted by priests, in this case Brahmins, and their religion, "Brahminism", which was supposedly imposed on the Indian population.[95] Reformist Hindus, and others such as Ambedkar, structured their criticism along similar lines.[95]
Textual history
[编辑]
Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in Vedic Sanskrit, are mainly the four Vedic Samhitas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and some of the older Upanishads[k] are also placed in this period. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices. These texts are also considered as a part of the scripture of contemporary Hinduism.[96]
Who really knows?
Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
— Nasadiya Sukta, Rig Veda, 10:129-6[97][98][99]
Characteristics
[编辑]The idea of reincarnation, or saṃsāra, is not mentioned in the early layers of the historic Vedic religion texts such as the Rigveda.[100][101] The later layers of the Rigveda do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade.[102][103]
The early layers of the Vedas do not mention the doctrine of Karma and rebirth, but mention the belief in an afterlife.[104][105] According to Sayers, these earliest layers of the Vedic literature show ancestor worship and rites such as sraddha (offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as the Aranyakas and the Upanisads show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals.[106][107][108] The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in the Upanishads of the late Vedic period, predating the Buddha and the Mahavira.[109][24] Similarly, the later layers of the Vedic literature such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (约 800 BCE) – such as in section 4.4 – discuss the earliest versions of the Karma doctrine as well as causality.[110][111]
The ancient Vedic religion lacked the belief in reincarnation and concepts such as Saṃsāra or Nirvana. It was a complex animistic religion with polytheistic and pantheistic aspects. Ancestor worship was an important, maybe the central component, of the ancient Vedic religion. Elements of the ancestors cult are still common in modern Hinduism in the form of Śrāddha.[24][页码请求][112]
According to Olivelle, some scholars state that the renouncer tradition was an "organic and logical development of ideas found in the Vedic religious culture", while others state that these emerged from the "indigenous non-Aryan population". This scholarly debate is a longstanding one, and is ongoing.[113]
Rituals
[编辑]
Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others:[16][查证请求]
- Fire rituals involving oblations (havir):
- The Agnyadheya, or installation of the fire[114]
- The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni, a sun charm[114]
- The Darshapurnamsa, the new and full moon sacrifices[114]
- The four seasonal (Cāturmāsya) sacrifices[114]
- The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the fire altar[114]
- The Pashubandhu, the (semi-)annual animal sacrifice[114]
- The Soma rituals, which involved the extraction, utility and consumption of Soma:[114]
- The royal consecration (Rajasuya) sacrifice
- The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) or a Yajna dedicated to the glory, wellbeing and prosperity of the kingdom or empire[17]
- The Purushamedha[114]
- The rituals and charms referred to in the Atharvaveda are concerned with medicine and healing practices[116]
- The Gomedha or cow sacrifice:
- The Taittiriya Brahmana of the Yajur Veda gives instructions for selecting the cow for the sacrifice depending on the deity.[117]
- Panchasaradiya sava – celebration where 17 cows are immolated once every five years. The Taittiriya Brahmana advocates the Panchasaradiya for those who want to be great.[117]
- Sulagava – sacrifice where roast beef is offered. It is mentioned in the Grihya Sutra[117]
- According to Dr. R. Mitra, the offered animal was intended for consumption as detailed in the Asvalayana Sutra. The Gopatha Brahmana lists the different individuals who are to receive the various parts like Pratiharta (neck and hump), the Udgatr, the Neshta, the Sadasya, the householder who performs the sacrifice (the two right feet), his wife (the two left feet) and so on.[117]
The Hindu rites of cremation are seen since the Rigvedic period; while they are attested from early times in the Cemetery H culture, there is a late Rigvedic reference invoking forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)". (RV 10.15.14)
Pantheon
[编辑]
Though a large number of names for devas occur in the Rigveda, only 33 devas are counted, eleven each of earth, space, and heaven.[118] The Vedic pantheon knows two classes, Devas and Asuras. The Devas (Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga, Amsa, etc.) are deities of cosmic and social order, from the universe and kingdoms down to the individual. The Rigveda is a collection of hymns to various deities, most notably heroic Indra, Agni the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods, and Soma, the deified sacred drink of the Indo-Iranians.[119] Also prominent is Varuna (often paired with Mitra) and the group of "All-gods", the Vishvadevas.[120]
Sages
[编辑]In the Hindu tradition, the revered sages of this era were Yajnavalkya,[121][122] Atharvan,[123] Atri,[124] Bharadvaja,[125] Gautama Maharishi, Jamadagni,[126] Kashyapa,[127] Vasistha,[128] Bhrigu,[129] Kutsa,[130] Pulastya, Kratu, Pulaha, Vishwamitra Narayana, Kanva, Rishabha, Vamadeva, and Angiras.[来源请求]
Ethics – satya and rta
[编辑]Ethics in the Vedas are based on concepts like satya and ṛta.[131]
In the Vedas and later sutras, the meaning of the word satya (सत्य) evolves into an ethical concept about truthfulness and is considered an important virtue.[132][133] It means being true and consistent with reality in one's thought, speech and action.[132]
Vedic ṛtá and its Avestan equivalent aša are both thought by some to derive from Proto-Indo-Iranian *Hr̥tás "truth",[134] which in turn may continue from a possible Proto-Indo-European *h2r-tós "properly joined, right, true", from a presumed root *h2er-. The derivative noun ṛta is defined as "fixed or settled order, rule, divine law or truth".[135] As Mahony (1998) notes, however, the term can be translated as "that which has moved in a fitting manner" – although this meaning is not actually cited by authoritative Sanskrit dictionaries it is a regular derivation from the verbal root -, and abstractly as "universal law" or "cosmic order", or simply as "truth".[136] The latter meaning dominates in the Avestan cognate to Ṛta, aša.[137]
Owing to the nature of Vedic Sanskrit, the term Ṛta can be used to indicate numerous things, either directly or indirectly, and both Indian and European scholars have experienced difficulty in arriving at fitting interpretations for Ṛta in all of its various usages in the Vedas, though the underlying sense of "ordered action" remains universally evident.[138]
The term is also found in the Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples.[139] The term dharma was already used in the later Brahmanical thoughts, where it was conceived as an aspect of ṛta.[140]
Vedic mythology
[编辑]The central myth at the base of Vedic ritual surrounds Indra who, inebriated by Soma, slays the dragon (ahi) Vritra, freeing the rivers, the cows, and Dawn.
Vedic mythology contains numerous elements which are common to Indo-European mythological traditions, like the mythologies of Persia, Greece, and Rome, and those of the Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic peoples. The Vedic god Indra in part corresponds to Dyaus Pitar, the Sky Father, Zeus, Jupiter, Thor and Tyr, or Perun. The deity Yama, the lord of the dead, is hypothesized to be related to Yima of Persian mythology. Vedic hymns refer to these and other deities, often 33, consisting of 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas, and in the late Rigvedas, Prajapati. These deities belong to the 3 regions of the universe or heavens, the earth, and the intermediate space.
Some major deities of the Vedic tradition include Indra, Dyaus, Surya, Agni, Ushas, Vayu, Varuna, Mitra, Aditi, Yama, Soma, Sarasvati, Prithvi, and Rudra.[141]
Post-Vedic religions
[编辑]
The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BCE. The period between 800 BCE and 200 BCE is the formative period for later Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.[144][145] According to Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "ascetic reformism",[146] while the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".[10] Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period", when "traditional religious practices and beliefs were reassessed. The Brahmins and the rituals they performed no longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in the Vedic period".[147]
Brahmanism evolved into Hinduism, which is significantly different from the preceding Brahmanism,[a] though "it is also convenient to have a single term for the whole complex of interrelated traditions."[5] The transition from ancient Brahmanism to schools of Hinduism was a form of evolution in interaction with non-Vedic traditions. This transition preserved many central ideas and theosophy found in the Vedas while synergistically integrating non-Vedic ideas.[1][2][15][148][l] While part of Hinduism, Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism share their concern with escape from the suffering of existence with Buddhism.[157]
Continuation of orthodox ritual
[编辑]According to Axel Michaels, the Vedic gods declined but did not disappear, and local cults were assimilated into the Vedic-Brahmanic pantheon, which changed into the Hindu pantheon. Deities such as Shiva and Vishnu became more prominent and gave rise to Shaivism and Vaishnavism.[158]
According to David Knipe, some communities in India have preserved and continue to practice portions of the historical Vedic religion, as observed in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh states and elsewhere.[7] According to the historian and Sanskrit linguist Michael Witzel, some of the rituals of the Kalash people have elements of the historical Vedic religion, but there are also some differences such as the presence of fire next to the altar instead of "in the altar" as in the Vedic religion.[8][9]
Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta
[编辑]Mīmāṃsā philosophers argue that there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Vedas or a god to validate the rituals.[159] Mīmāṃsā argues that the gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of gods.[160]
Of the continuation of the Vedic tradition in the Upanishads, Fowler writes the following:
| “ | Despite the radically different nature of the Upanishads in relation to the Vedas it has to be remembered that the material of both form the Veda or "knowledge" which is sruti literature. So the Upanishads develop the ideas of the Vedas beyond their ritual formalism and should not be seen as isolated from them. The fact that the Vedas that are more particularly emphasized in the Vedanta: the efficacy of the Vedic ritual is not rejected, it is just that there is a search for the Reality that informs it.[161] | ” |
The Upanishads gradually evolved into Vedanta, which is one of the primary schools of thought within Hinduism. Vedanta considers itself "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas".[162]
Sramana tradition
[编辑]The non-Vedic śramaṇa traditions existed alongside Brahmanism.[163][164][m][165][166] These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but movements with mutual influences with Brahmanical traditions,[163] reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India".[167] Jainism and Buddhism evolved out of the Shramana tradition.[168]
There are Jaina references to 22 prehistoric tirthankaras. In this view, Jainism peaked at the time of Mahavira (traditionally put in the 6th century BCE).[169][170] Buddhism, traditionally put from c. 500 BCE, declined in India over the 5th to 12th centuries in favor of Puranic Hinduism[171] and Islam.[172][173]
参见
[编辑]
脚注
[编辑]- ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Jan Gonda 等学者使用了“古代印度教”（ancient Hinduism）这个术语，以区别于“现代印度教”（recent Hinduism）。
Jamison & Witzel (1992，第3页)使用了“吠陀印度教”（Vedic Hinduism）一词，但也指出：“……将这一时期称为吠陀印度教，其实是语义上的矛盾（contradictio in terminis），因为吠陀宗教与我们通常所称的印度教宗教有很大不同——这种差异就如同古代希伯来宗教与中世纪或现代基督宗教之间的差异。不过，吠陀宗教可以被视为印度教的前身。” Michaels (2004，第38页)同样强调了两者的差异：“人们普遍高估了吠陀宗教对印度教的遗产。神话确实有巨大影响，但宗教术语却大幅变化：印度教的所有核心概念不是在吠陀中根本不存在，不然就是意义完全不同。吠陀宗教并不认识带有业报（karma）概念的伦理化灵魂轮回、世界的周期性毁灭，或现世得解（jīvanmukti、mokṣa、nirvāṇa）的想法；世界为幻（māyā）的观念应当与古代印度的思维格格不入，而全能造物主的概念，仅在《梨俱吠陀》后期赞歌中才出现。吠陀宗教也不认识种姓制度、寡妇殉葬、禁再婚、神像与庙宇、供奉仪式（Pūjā）、瑜伽、朝圣、素食、牛的神圣、人生四阶（āśrama）等观念，或者仅在萌芽状态中略有接触。因此，有理由认为吠陀宗教与印度教宗教之间出现了一个重要的转折点。”
参见Halbfass (1991，第1–2页)。
《大英百科全书》亦指出，从吠陀宗教中发展出“婆罗门教”（Brahmanism），这是一种古代印度的宗教传统。百科条目写道：“婆罗门教强调由婆罗门（祭司阶级）所执行的仪式以及他们的地位，同时也探讨《奥义书》中所提出的梵（Brahman）——即绝对实在的哲学观念；这些奥义书被视为吠陀的一部分，即宗教经典。” 而婆罗门教又在公元初期与恒河东部的非吠陀印度-雅利安宗教遗产及当地宗教传统进行融合后，发展为印度教，参见Witzel 1995、Hiltebeitel 2002、Samuel 2010、Welbon 2004、Bronkhorst 2007。 - ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 The Indo-Aryans were pastoralists[15] who migrated into north-western India after the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization,[29][35][36] bringing with them their language[37] and religion.[38][39] They were closely related to the Indo-Aryans who founded Mitanni kingdom in northern Syria[40] (c.1500–1300 BCE).
Both groups were rooted in the Andronovo-culture[41] in the Bactria–Margiana era, in present northern Afghanistan,[40] and related to the Indo-Iranians, from which they split off around 1800–1600 BCE.[42] Their roots go back further to the Sintashta culture, with funeral sacrifices which show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the Rig Veda.[43]
The immigrations consisted probably of small groups of people.[11] Kenoyer (1998) notes that "there is no archaeological or biological evidence for invasions or mass migrations into the Indus Valley between the end of the Harappan phase, about 1900 B.C. and the beginning of the Early Historic period around 600 B.C."[44]
For an overview of the current relevant research, see the following references.[45][46][47][11] - ^ BMAC-influences:
- Beckwith (2011，第32页): "Although the Indo-Europeans settled in new lands, in some cases (such as Greece) evidently by conquest, they did not always dominate the local people in the beginning. Instead, they often served the local peoples as mercenary warriors, or came under their domination in general. In either case, the Indo-European migrants–who were mostly men–married local women and, by mixing with them, developed their distinctive creole dialect features. The most influential of the new dialects was Proto-Indo-Iranian, the speakers of which appear to have been influenced linguistically by a non-Indo-European people from whom the Indo-Iranians borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The locus of this convergence is increasingly thought to have been the area of the advanced, non-Indo-European-speaking Bactria–Margiana Culture's centred on what is now northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan. The other Indo-Europeans developed different dialects and beliefs under the influence of other non-Indo-European languages and cultures."
- Anthony (2007，第454–455页) states that at least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma, which was "probably borrowed from the BMAC religion."
- Anthony (2007，第454页): "Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rigveda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers."
- ^ 关于晚期吠陀社会在宗教与社会政治上的发展，详见 Witzel 1995
- ^ Michaels指出：“他们自称为ārya（雅利安人，字面意思为‘好客之人’，源自吠陀语ārya，意指‘宜人、好客’），但即使在《梨俱吠陀》中，ārya这个词也代表一种文化与语言的界线，而不仅是种族划分。”[29]
- ^ 吠陀时期的起始时间难以准确界定。Witzel 推测其范围为公元前1900年至1400年之间。[32] Flood（1996年）则认为为公元前1500年左右。[33]
- ^ Some writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India,[48][49][29][50] due to a lack of archaeological evidence and signs of cultural continuity,[29] hypothesizing instead a slow process of acculturation[29] or transformation.[35] According to Upinder Singh, "The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans is the subject of continuing debate among philologists, linguists, historians, archaeologists, and others. The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as invaders. Another view, advocated mainly by some Indian scholars, is that they were indigenous to the subcontinent."[50] Edwin Bryant used the term "Indo-Aryan controversy" for an oversight of the Indo-Aryan migration theory, and some of its opponents.[51]
Mallory and Adams note that two types of models "enjoy significant international currency", namely the Anatolian hypothesis, and a migration out of the Eurasian steppes.[52] Linguistic and archaeological data clearly show a cultural change after 1750 BCE,[29] with the linguistic and religious data clearly showing links with Indo-European languages and religion.[53] According to Singh, "The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants."[50]
An overview of the "Indigenist position" can be obtained from Bryant & Patton (2005).[51] See also the article Indigenous Aryans - ^ See Kuzʹmina (2007), The Origin of the Indo-Iranians, p. 339, for an overview of publications up to 1997 on this subject.
- ^ Up to the late 19th century, the Nuristanis of Afghanistan observed a primitive form of Hinduism until they were forcibly converted to Islam under the rule of Abdur Rahman Khan.[70][71][72] However, aspects of the historical Vedic religion survived in other corners of the Indian subcontinent, such as Kerala, where the Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals. The Kalash people residing in northwest Pakistan also continue to practise a form of the ancient Vedic religion.[67][73]
- ^ For the metaphysical concept of Brahman, see: Lipner, Julius. Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Routledge. 2012: 251–252, 283, 366–369. ISBN 978-1-135-24061-5; Perrett, Roy W. Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study. University of Hawaii Press. 1998: 53–54. ISBN 978-0-8248-2085-5.
- ^ Upanishads thought to date from the Vedic period are Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chāndogya, Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana.
- ^ Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis[149][150] of various Indian cultures and traditions,[149][151] with diverse roots and no single founder.[152] Among its roots are the Vedic religion[151] of the late Vedic period and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans,[153] but also the religions of the Indus Valley civilisation,[154] the Sramana[155] or renouncer traditions[151] of east India,[155] and "popular or local traditions".[151] This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between ca. 500[149]–200[156] BCE and ca. 300 CE,[149] in the period of the Second Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the Epics and the first Purānas were composed.[149][156]
- ^ Cromwell: "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."[163]
参考文献
[编辑]- ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Bronkhorst 2007.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Samuel 2010.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Heesterman 2005，第9552–9553页.
- ^ 4.0 4.1 Vedic religion. Encyclopedia Britannica. 21 September 2024.
- ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Sullivan 2001，第9页.
- ^ Samuel 2010，第97–99, 113–118页.
- ^ 7.0 7.1 Knipe 2015，第41–45, 220–223页.
- ^ 8.0 8.1 Witzel, Michael. Griffiths, A.; Houben, J.E.M. , 编. The Vedas: Texts, language, and ritual. Groningen: Forsten. 2004: 581–636.
|article=被忽略 (帮助) - ^ 9.0 9.1 Kalasha religion (PDF). section 1.5.2.
- ^ 10.0 10.1 Michaels 2004，第38页.
- ^ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Anthony 2007.
- ^ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Beckwith 2011，第32页.
- ^ White 2003.
- ^ 14.0 14.1 Vedic religion. Encyclopedia Britannica. 21 September 2024.
It [Vedic religion] takes its name from the collections of sacred texts known as the Vedas. Vedism is the oldest stratum of religious activity in India for which there exist written materials. It was one of the major traditions that shaped Hinduism.
- ^ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 Witzel 1995.
- ^ 16.0 16.1 Prasoon, Shrikant. Ch. 2, Vedang, Kalp. Indian Scriptures. Pustak Mahal. 11 August 2010. ISBN 978-81-223-1007-8.
- ^ 17.0 17.1 Griffith, Ralph Thomas Hotchkin. The Texts of the White Yajurveda. Translated with a popular commentary Reprint. Benaras: E. J. Lazarus and Co. 1987 [1899]. ISBN 81-215-0047-8.
- ^ Stephanie Jamison. The Rigveda — Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Oxford University Press. 2015: 1393, 1399. ISBN 978-0190633394.
- ^ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Vedism and Brahmanism | Encyclopedia.com. www.encyclopedia.com. [2024-08-02].
- ^ McClelland, Norman C. Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma. McFarland. 2018-10-15: 48. ISBN 978-0-7864-5675-8 （英语）.
- ^ 21.0 21.1 21.2 von Stietencron 2005，第231–237 with footnotes页.
- ^ Mannathukkaren 2024，第"an imagined 'Hinduism'"页.
- ^ Flood (2020)，第58页.
- ^ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Laumakis 2008.
- ^ Welbon 2004，第33页.
- ^ von Stietencron 2005，第231页.
- ^ 27.0 27.1 Kuz'mina 2007，第319页.
- ^ Singh 2008，第185页.
- ^ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 Michaels 2004，第33页.
- ^ Jamison & Witzel 1992，第2-4页.
- ^ Michaels 2004，第32–36页.
- ^ Witzel 1995，第3–4页.
- ^ Flood 1996，第21页.
- ^ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Bronkhorst 2016，第9–10页.
- ^ 35.0 35.1 Flood 1996，第30–35页.
- ^ Hiltebeitel 2007，第5页.
- ^ Samuel 2010，第53–56页.
- ^ Flood 1996，第30页.
- ^ Hiltebeitel 2007，第5–7页.
- ^ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Anthony 2007，第454页.
- ^ Anthony 2007，第410–411页.
- ^ Anthony 2007，第408页.
- ^ Anthony 2007，第375, 408–411页.
- ^ Kenoyer, M. Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. 1998: 174.
- ^ Witzel, Michael. Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts (PDF). Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 2001, 7 (3): 1–93.
- ^ Ratnagar, Shereen. The Aryan homeland debate in India. Kohl, P. L.; Kozelsky, M.; Ben-Yehuda, N. (编). Selective Remembrances: Archaeology in the construction, commemoration, and consecration of national pasts. 2008: 349–378.
- ^ Bhan, Suraj. Aryanization of the Indus Civilization. Panikkar, K. N.; Byres, T. J.; Patnaik, U. (编). The Making of History. 2002: 41–55.
- ^ Bryant 2001.
- ^ Bryant, Edwin. 2001. The Indo-Aryan Controversy, p. 342[需要解释]
- ^ 50.0 50.1 50.2 Singh 2008，第186页.
- ^ 51.0 51.1 Bryant & Patton 2005.
- ^ Mallory & Adams 2006，第460–461页.
- ^ Flood 1996，第33页.
- ^ Pletcher, Kenneth. The History of India. Britannica Educational Publishing. 2010: 60.
- ^ Roger D. Woodard. Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult. University of Illinois Press. 18 August 2006: 242–. ISBN 978-0-252-09295-4.
- ^ 56.0 56.1 Anthony 2007，第462页.
- ^ Anthony 2007，第454–455页.
- ^ 58.0 58.1 58.2 Anthony 2007，第49页.
- ^ Anthony 2007，第50页.
- ^ Flood 2008，第68页.
- ^ Melton & Baumann 2010，第1412页.
- ^ White 2006，第28页.
- ^ White 2003，第28页.
- ^ Samuel 2010，第48–51, 61–93页.
- ^ Hiltebeitel 2007，第8–10页.
- ^ 66.0 66.1 Jamison & Witzel 1992，第1–5, 47–52, 74–77页.
- ^ 67.0 67.1 67.2 West, Barbara A. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. 19 May 2010: 357. ISBN 9781438119137 （英语）.
The Kalasha are a unique people living in just three valleys near Chitral, Pakistan, the capital of North-West Frontier Province, which borders Afghanistan. Unlike their neighbors in the Hindu Kush Mountains on both the Afghani and Pakistani sides of the border the Kalasha have not converted to Islam. During the mid-20th century a few Kalasha villages in Pakistan were forcibly converted to this dominant religion, but the people fought the conversion and once official pressure was removed the vast majority continued to practice their own religion. Their religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits ... given their Indo-Aryan language, ... the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies.
- ^ Samuel 2010，第113页.
- ^ Knipe 2015，第1–50页.
- ^ Minahan, James B. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. 2014: 205. ISBN 9781610690188 （英语）.
Living in the high mountain valleys, the Nuristani retained their ancient culture and their religion, a form of the ancient Vedic religion with many customs and rituals developed locally. Certain deities were revered only by one tribe or community, but one deity was universally worshipped by all Nuristani as the Creator, the Hindu god Yama Raja, called imr'o or imra by the Nuristani tribes.
- ^ Barrington, Nicholas; Kendrick, Joseph T.; Schlagintweit, Reinhard. A Passage to Nuristan: Exploring the mysterious Afghan hinterland. I.B. Tauris. 18 April 2006: 111. ISBN 9781845111755 （英语）.
Prominent sites include Hadda, near Jalalabad, but Buddhism never seems to have penetrated the remote valleys of Nuristan, where the people continued to practice an early form of polytheistic Hinduism.
- ^ Weiss, Mitch; Maurer, Kevin. No Way Out: A story of valor in the mountains of Afghanistan. Berkley Caliber. 31 December 2012: 299. ISBN 9780425253403 （英语）.
Up until the late nineteenth century, many Nuristanis practiced a primitive form of Hinduism. It was the last area in Afghanistan to convert to Islam—and the conversion was accomplished by the sword.
- ^ Bezhan, Frud. Pakistan's Forgotten Pagans get their Due. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 19 April 2017 [31 July 2017] （英语）.
About half of the Kalash practice a form of ancient Hinduism infused with old pagan and animist beliefs.
- ^ Witzel, Michael. The Origin of the World's Mythologies. 2012.
- ^ Witzel, Michael. Vala and Iwato: The Myth of the Hidden Sun in India, Japan, and beyond (PDF). 2005.
- ^ Basham 1989，第74–75页.
- ^ yaksha. Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 July 2024.
- ^ Županov, Ines G. Missionary Tropics: The Catholic Frontier in India (16th–17th Centuries). University of Michigan Press. 2005: 18ff. ISBN 0-472-11490-5.
- ^ Maritain, Jacques; Watkin, E. I. An Introduction to Philosophy. Rowman & Littlefield. 2005: 7. ISBN 978-0-7425-5053-7.
- ^ Robinson, Catherine A. Interpretations of the Bhagavad-Gita and Images of the Hindu Tradition: The song of the Lord. Routledge. 2014. page 164, footnote 9. ISBN 978-1-134-27891-6.
- ^ Allen 2022，第208页: "This greater Vedic tradition is sometimes referred to as "Brahminism," but that label is less than ideal. First, as McGovern (2019) has pointed out in a recent book, the term "Brahmin" was originally not exclusive to followers of the Vedas, but was also used by Buddhists, Jains, and others. Second, although (Vedic) Brahmins were jealous of their teaching authority, they regarded the Vedas as the ultimate source of that authority, and referring to their tradition as "Brahminism" rather than "Vedism" would be subject to the same objections that have led scholars of Tibetan Buddhism to abandon the term "Lamaism." Third, and perhaps most importantly, the term obscures the participation of non-Brahmins in the greater Vedic tradition."
- ^ Maritain, Jacques. An Introduction to Philosophy. Rowman & Littlefield. 2005. pages 6–7 footnote 1. ISBN 978-0-7425-5053-7.
This [the primitive religion of the Vedas] resulted, after a period of confusion, in the formation of a new system, Brahmanism (or Hinduism), which is essentially a philosophy, a metaphysic, a work of human speculation, ...; [footnote 1]... the neuter, Brahman, as the one impersonal substance.
- ^ Leaman, Oliver. Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings. Routledge. 2002: 64–65. ISBN 978-1-134-68918-7.
The early Upanishads are primarily metaphysical treatises concerned with identifying the Brahman, the ground of the universe. ... The essence of early Brahmanism is the search for the Absolute and its natural development is in Vedantin monism which claims that the soul is identical with the Absolute.
- ^ Biardeau, Madeleine. Hinduism: The anthropology of a civilization
. Oxford University Press. 1994: 17–22. ISBN 978-0-19-563389-4.
- ^ Monier-Williams, Monier. Brāhmanism and Hindūism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindūs. J. Murray. 1891: 2–3.
- ^ Sullivan 2001，第137页.
- ^ Lochtefeld, James. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism 1: A–M. Rosen Publishing. 2001: 122. ISBN 978-0823931798.
|article=被忽略 (帮助) - ^ Michaels 2004，第37–39页.
- ^ Bronkhorst 2017，第363页.
- ^ Bronkhorst, Johannes. Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism. Leiden: Brill. 2011. ISBN 978-90-04-20140-8. OCLC 729756183.
- ^ Chande, M. B. Kautilyan Arthasastra. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. 1998. ISBN 81-7156-733-9. OCLC 71205138.
- ^ 92.0 92.1 Bronkhorst 2015，第2页.
- ^ South Asia Scholar Activist Collective, Hindutva Harassment Field Manual, Wikidata Q108732338
- ^ 'Hindutva Is Nothing But Brahminism', Outlook, 5 April 2002.
- ^ 95.0 95.1 Raf Gelders, Willem Delders (2003),Mantras of Anti-Brahmanism: Colonial Experience of Indian Intellectuals, Economic and Political Weekly 38(43):4611–4617. DOI:10.2307/4414197
- ^ Goodall, Dominic. Hindu Scriptures. Motilal Banarsidass. 2001: ix–xx. ISBN 978-81-208-1770-8.
- ^ Kramer, Kenneth. World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions. Paulist Press. January 1986: 34ff. ISBN 978-0-8091-2781-8.
- ^ David Christian. Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History. University of California Press. 1 September 2011: 18ff. ISBN 978-0-520-95067-2.
- ^ Singh 2008，第206ff页.
- ^ Boyer, A. M. Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara. Journal Asiatique. 1901, 9 (18): 451–453, 459–468.
- ^ Krishan, Yuvraj. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. 1997. ISBN 978-81-208-1233-8.
- ^ Laumakis 2008，第90–99页.
- ^ Ranade, R. D. A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. 1926: 147–148.
... in certain other places [of Rigveda], an approach is being made to the idea of Transmigration. ... There we definitely know that the whole hymn is address to a departed spirit, and the poet [of the Rigvedic hymn] says that he is going to recall the departed soul in order that it may return again and live.
- ^ Laumakis 2008，第90页.
- ^ Atsushi Hayakawa. Circulation of Fire in the Veda. LIT Verlag Münster. 2014: 66–67, 101–103. ISBN 978-3-643-90472-0.
- ^ Sayers, Matthew R. Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India. Oxford University Press. 2013: 1–9. ISBN 978-0-19-989643-1.
- ^ Sayers, Matthew Rae. Feeding the ancestors: ancestor worship in ancient Hinduism and Buddhism (PhD论文). University of Texas: 12.
- ^ Sayers, Matthew R. McGovern, Nathan , 编. Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India
. The Journal of Hindu Studies. 1 November 2015, 8 (3): 336–338. ISSN 1756-4255. doi:10.1093/jhs/hiv034.
- ^ Keown, Damien. Buddhism: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press. 2013: 28, 32–38. ISBN 978-0-19-966383-5.
- ^ Tull, Herman Wayne. The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as man in ancient Indian myth and ritual. State University of New York Press. 1989: 1–3, 11–12. ISBN 978-0-7914-0094-4.
- ^ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5–6. Berkley Center for Religion Peace & World Affairs. Georgetown University. 2012. （原始内容存档于13 April 2013）.
- ^ Sayers, Matthew R. The Śrāddha: The Development of Ancestor Worship in Classical Hinduism. Religion Compass. 2015, 9 (6): 182–197. ISSN 1749-8171. doi:10.1111/rec3.12155 （英语）.
- ^ Flood 2008，第273页.
- ^ 114.00 114.01 114.02 114.03 114.04 114.05 114.06 114.07 114.08 114.09 114.10 114.11 114.12 114.13 114.14 114.15 Renou, Louis. Vedic India. Susil Gupta. 1947: 101–110.
- ^ Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel. The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Oxford University Press. 2014: 32.
- ^ Bloomfield, Maurice. Hymns of the Atharva Veda. Kessinger Publishing. 1 June 2004: 1–8. ISBN 1419125087.
- ^ 117.0 117.1 117.2 117.3 The Vedas: With Illustrative Extracts. 由Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith; T. B. Griffith翻译. Book Tree, 2003. 2003: 56–57. ISBN 9781585092239.
- ^ Singhal, K. C.; Gupta, Roshan. Vedic period: A new interpretation. The Ancient History of India. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. 2003: 150. ISBN 8126902868.
- ^ Haoma i. Botany. Encyclopædia Iranica. 已忽略未知参数
|article-url=(帮助) - ^ Renou, Louis. L'Inde Classique. Librairie d'Ameriqe et d'Orient 1. Paris. 1985: 328 [1947]. ISBN 2-7200-1035-9.
- ^ Staal, Frits. Discovering the Vedas: Origins, mantras, rituals, insights. Penguin Books. 2008: 3, 365. ISBN 978-0-14-309986-4.
- ^ Olivelle, Patrick. The Samnyasa Upanisads: Hindu scriptures on asceticism and renunciation. Oxford University Press. 1992: 92, 140–146. ISBN 978-0-19-536137-7.
- ^ Dalal, Roshen. Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books. 2010: 48. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ^ Dalal, Roshen. Hinduism: An alphabetical guide. Penguin Books. 2010: 49. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ^ Dalal, Roshen. Hinduism: An alphabetical guide. Penguin Books. 2010: 66–67. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ^ Dalal, Roshen. Hinduism: An alphabetical guide. Penguin Books. 2010: 175. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ^ Dalal, Roshen. Hinduism: An alphabetical guide. Penguin Books. 2010: 200–201. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ^ Dalal, Roshen. Hinduism: An alphabetical guide. Penguin Books. 2010: 447–448. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ^ Dalal, Roshen. Hinduism: An alphabetical guide. Penguin Books. 2010: 74. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ^ Dalal, Roshen. Hinduism: An alphabetical guide. Penguin Books. 2010: 218. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ^ Bodewitz, Henk W. Vedic Cosmology and Ethics: Selected Studies. Brill. 2019. ISBN 978-90-04-39864-1 （英语）.
- ^ 132.0 132.1 Tiwari, K. N. Classical Indian Ethical Thought. Motilal Banarsidass. 1998: 87. ISBN 978-8120816077.
- ^ A Dhand (2002), The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism, Journal of Religious Ethics, 30(3), pages 347–372
- ^ AṦA (Asha "Truth"). Encyclopaedia Iranica. [21 February 2013].
- ^ Monier-Williams (1899:223b)
- ^ Mahony (1998:3).
- ^ Oldenberg (1894) p 30. Cf. also Thieme (1960) p 308.
- ^ Cf. Ramakrishna (1965) pp. 45–46
- ^ Duchesne-Guillemin 1963，第46页.
- ^ Day, Terence P. The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. 1982: 42–45. ISBN 0-919812-15-5.
- ^ Macdonell, A.A.. Vedic Mythology. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 1995. ISBN 81-208-1113-5 –通过Google Books.
- ^ Singh, N. The vivaha (marriage) Samskara as a paradigm for religio-cultural integration in Hinduism. Journal for the Study of Religion. 1992, 5 (1): 31–40. JSTOR 24764135.
- ^ Vivekananda, Swami. Prabuddha Bharata [Awakened India]. Prabuddha Bharata Press. 2005: 362, 594. ISBN 9788178231686.
- ^ Michaels 2004，第36-38页.
- ^ Flood 1996，第82, 224–49页.
- ^ Michaels 2004，第36页.
- ^ Muesse 2003，第115页.
- ^ Eliade, Mircea. From Gautama Buddha to the Triumph of Christianity. History of Religious Ideas 2. University of Chicago Press. 2011: 44–46. ISBN 978-0-226-02735-7.
- ^ 149.0 149.1 149.2 149.3 149.4 Hiltebeitel 2007，第12页.
- ^ Samuel 2010，第193页.
- ^ 151.0 151.1 151.2 151.3 Flood 1996，第16页.
- ^ Osborne 2005，第9页.
- ^ Samuel 2010，第48-53页.
- ^ Hiltebeitel 2007，第3页.
- ^ 155.0 155.1 Gomez 2013，第42页.
- ^ 156.0 156.1 Larson 2009.
- ^ Eliade, Mircea. From Gautama Buddha to the Triumph of Christianity. History of Religious Ideas 2. University of Chicago Press. 2011: 49–54. ISBN 978-0-226-02735-7.
- ^ Michaels 2004，第40页.
- ^ Neville, Robert. Religious Truth. SUNY Press. 2001: 51. ISBN 9780791447789.
- ^ Coward, Harold. The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought. SUNY Press. 2008: 114. ISBN 9780791473368.
- ^ Fowler, Jeaneane D. Perspectives of Reality: An introduction to the philosophy of Hinduism. : 46.
- ^ Hume, Robert E. The American College Dictionary. Random House. 1966.
[Vedānta] is concerned with the end of the Vedas, both chronologically and teleologically.
- ^ 163.0 163.1 163.2 Crawford, S. Cromwell. review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism. Philosophy East and West. 1972.
- ^ Kalghatgi, Dr. T.G. Study of Jainism. Jaipur: Prakrit Bharti Academy. 1988.
- ^ Masih, Y. A Comparative Study of Religions. Delhi, IN: Motilal Banarsidass. 2000: 18. ISBN 81-208-0815-0.
There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to Vedic sacrifices, Vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed ... much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times.
- ^ Jaini, P.S. The Jaina Path to Purification. Delhi, IN: Motilal Banarsidass. 1979: 169.
Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-Vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism.
- ^ Zimmer 1989，第217页.
- ^ Svarghese, Alexander P. India : History, religion, vision and contribution to the world. 2008: 259–260.
- ^ Helmuth von Glasenapp, Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999. Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation. P.24. "Thus not only nothing, from the philosophical and the historical point of view, comes in the way of the supposition that Jainism was established by Parsva around 800 BCE, but it is rather confirmed in everything that we know of the spiritual life of that period."
- ^ Dundas, Paul. The Jains. 2002: 17.
Jainism, then, was in origin merely one component of a north Indian ascetic culture that flourished in the Ganges basin from around the eighth or seventh centuries BCE.
- ^ Buddhism. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library. 2009.
- ^ Ruhe, Brian. Freeing the Buddha: Diversity on a sacred path – large scale concerns. : 78–83.
- ^ Sarao, K.T.S. A text book of the history of Theravāda Buddhism. Dept. of Buddhist Studies. University of Delhi. : 110.
文献
[编辑]- Allen, Michael S. The Ocean of Inquiry: Niscaldas and the Premodern Origins of Modern Hinduism. Oxford University Press. 2022. ISBN 9780197638989.
- Anthony, David W. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language. How Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world. Princeton University Press. 2007.
- Basham, Arthur Llewellyn. The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism. Oxford University Press. 1989. ISBN 9780195073492.
- Beckwith, Christopher I. Empires of the Silk Road. A history of central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the present. Princeton University Press. 2011.
- Bronkhorst, Johannes. Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India. BRILL. 2007. ISBN 9789004157194.
- Bronkhorst, Johannes. The historiography of Brahmanism. Otto; Rau; Rupke (编). History and Religion:Narrating a Religious Past. Walter deGruyter. 2015.
- Bronkhorst, Johannes. How the Brahmains Won. BRILL. 2016.
- Bronkhorst, Johannes. Brahmanism: Its place in ancient Indian society. Contributions to Indian Sociology. 2017, 51 (3): 361–369. S2CID 220050987. doi:10.1177/0069966717717587.
- Bryant, Edwin. The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan migration debate. Oxford University Press. 2001.
- Bryant, Edwin F.; Patton, Laurie L. (编). The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and inference in Indian history. London: Routledge. 2005. ISBN 0-7007-1463-4.
- Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques. Heraclitus and Iran. History of Religions. Summer 1963, 3 (1): 34–49. S2CID 62860085. doi:10.1086/462470.
- Flood, Gavin D. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. 1996.
- Flood, Gavin. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. John Wiley & Sons. 2008. ISBN 9780470998687.
- Flood, Gavin. Hindu Monotheism. Cambridge University Press. 2020.
- Gomez, Luis O., Buddhism in India, Kitagawa, Joseph (编), The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture, Routledge, 2013, ISBN 9781136875908
- Halbfass, Wilhelm. Tradition and Reflection. SUNY Press. 1991. ISBN 9780791403617.
- Heesterman, Jan. Vedism and Brahmanism. Jones, Lindsay (编). The Encyclopedia of Religion 14 2nd. Macmillan Reference: 9552–9553. 2005. ISBN 0-02-865733-0.
- Hiltebeitel, Alf. Hinduism. Kitagawa, Joseph (编). The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, history, and culture. Routledge. 2002. ISBN 9781136875977.
- Hiltebeitel, Alf. Hinduism. Kitagawa, Joseph (编). The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture Digital printing. Routledge. 2007. ISBN 9781136875908.
- Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael. Vedic Hinduism (PDF). Harvard University. 1992 [4 August 2018]. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2003-10-05）.
- Knipe, David M. Vedic Voices: Intimate narratives of a living Andhra tradition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 2015.
- Kuz'mina, Elena Efimovna, J. P. Mallory , 编, The Origin of the Indo-Iranians, Brill, 2007, ISBN 978-9004160545
- Larson, Gerald James. Hinduism. World Religions in America: An Introduction. Westminster: John Knox Press. 2009: 179–198. ISBN 978-1-61164-047-2.
- Laumakis, Stephen J. An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. 21 February 2008. ISBN 9781139469661 （英语）.
- Mallory; Adams. The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford University Press. 2006.
- Mannathukkaren, Nissim. Hindu Nationalism in South India: The Rise of Saffron in Kerala. Taylor & Francis. 2024.
- Melton, Gordon J.; Baumann, Martin. Religions of the World: A comprehensive encyclopedia of beliefs and practices. ABC-CLIO. 2010.
- Michaels, Axel. Hinduism. Past and present. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 2004.
- Muesse, Mark William. Hinduism. Great World Religions. 2003.
- Osborne, E, Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher's Book Mainstream, Folens Limited, 2005
- Samuel, Geoffrey. The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic religions to the thirteenth century. Cambridge University Press. 2010.
- Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th century. Pearson Education India. 2008. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
- von Stietencron, Heinrich. Hindu Myth, Hindu History: Religion, art, and politics. Orient Blackswan. 2005.
- Sullivan, Bruce M. The A to Z of Hinduism. Rowman & Littlefield. 2001. ISBN 978-0-8108-4070-6.
- Welbon, Guy. Hindu Beginnings. Assessing the Period 1000 BCE to 300 CE (PDF). Education About Asia. 2004, 9 (2).
- White, David Gordon. Kiss of the Yogini. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2003. ISBN 0-226-89483-5.
- White, David Gordon. Kiss of the Yogini: "Tantric Sex" in its South Asian Contexts. University of Chicago Press. 2006. ISBN 9780226027838.
- Witzel, Michael. Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state (PDF). EJVS. 1995, 1 (4). （原始内容 (PDF)存档于11 June 2007）.
- Zimmer, Heinrich. Phiosophies of India. Princeton University Press. 1989.