草稿:吠陀宗教

晚期吠陀文化的傳播。雅利安邦（Aryavarta）僅限於印度西北部及恆河西部平原，而位於東部的「大摩竭陀」則由非吠陀的印度-雅利安人所佔據。各支派的位置以栗色標示。

吠陀宗教，又稱為吠陀教或婆羅門教，有時也被稱為古印度教或吠陀印度教，是西北印度次大陸（旁遮普地区與恒河平原西部）部分印度-雅利安人在吠陀時期（約西元前1500年至前500年）流行的宗教思想與實踐。這些思想與實踐可見於吠陀文獻中，其中一些吠陀儀式至今仍持續實行。吠陀宗教是印度教历史中塑造現代印度教的主要傳統之一，儘管今日的印度教與歷史上的吠陀宗教已大為不同。

吠陀宗教的起源可追溯至印伊人的文化與宗教，特別是來自辛塔什塔文化（約前2200年至1750年）與安德罗诺沃文化（約前2000年至1150年）在欧亚大草原的傳統。這一印伊宗教從巴克特里亞·馬爾吉阿納文明體（BMAC，約前2250年至1700年）中汲取了獨特的宗教信仰與實踐。當時游牧的印度-雅利安部族曾在中亚南方的該地區停留，作為一個獨立族群。之後，這些印度-雅利安部族遷徙至印度次大陸西北部，並於早期吠陀時期（約西元前1500年至1100年）在當地發展出受印度河流域文明（前2600年至1900年）殘存文化影響的吠陀宗教，作為印度-雅利安宗教的一種變體。

至晚期吠陀時期（約前1100年至500年），婆羅門教由吠陀宗教中發展而出，成為俱盧－般遮羅政權的意識形態；在該政權解體、並被非吠陀的摩揭陀文化圈取代後，婆羅門教影響力擴及更廣地區。當婆羅門教與恒河東岸的非吠陀印度-雅利安宗教傳統（同時也孕育出佛教與耆那教）以及在地信仰結合時，成為形塑現代印度教的重要來源之一。

吠陀宗教的具體儀式與祭祀包括：蘇摩儀式；伴隨供品（護摩）的火焰崇拜儀式；以及馬祭。自《梨俱吠陀》時期起，即可見火葬與土葬兩種喪葬儀式。吠陀宗教所崇拜的神祇包括特尤斯、因陀羅、阿耆尼、楼陀罗與伐楼拿等，其重視的倫理觀念則包括「諦」與「法」。

術語

吠陀教與婆羅門教

西元前第二千紀開始，多批印度-雅利安人進入了印度河流域，並帶來最早期的吠陀宗教，此類早期吠陀宗教被統稱為「吠陀教」（Vedism）。「婆羅門教」（Brahmanism）則是晚期吠陀時期發展而成的宗教形式，約於西元前1000年在恒河流域逐漸成形。。根據Heesterman的說法：「這一時期（的吠陀宗教）廣泛地被稱為婆羅門教，是因為它賦予婆罗门階級在宗教與法律上的重要地位。」 在晚期吠陀時期，梵书與早期奥义书陸續成書。吠陀教與婆羅門教皆視《吠陀》為神聖經典，但婆羅門教具有更大的包容性，納入許多超越《吠陀》的教義與主題，如寺廟崇拜、供養、冥想、出世、素食、上師制度，以及其他對印度教宗教生活而言重要的非吠陀要素。

古印度教與吠陀印度教

「古印度教」（ancient Hinduism）與「吠陀印度教」（Vedic Hinduism）這些術語也常用來指稱古代的吠陀宗教。

根據海因里希·馮·施蒂滕克龍的說法，19世紀的西方出版物中，吠陀宗教被認為與印度教有所區別，且兩者並無關聯。當時的主流觀點認為，印度教與印度史詩及往世书相關，並透過基於祭官制度、怛特羅密教與「巴克蒂」（虔信運動）等宗派傳承下來。面對西方殖民與基督新教傳教活動的衝擊，19世紀末至20世紀初的印度教改革運動，如梵社運動與新吠檀多派，反對往世書傳統中的「迷信」，認為那是對吠陀傳統的背離，並提倡回歸《吠陀》，試圖復興一種他們所構想的原始、理性、單一神的「古印度教」，以與基督新教地位對等。

到了20世紀，由於新印度教強調其吠陀根源，加上對吠陀宗教本身及其與現代印度教之共享傳統與神學的理解日益深入，學者們開始視歷史上的吠陀宗教為現代印度教的先驅。 歷史上的吠陀宗教現今普遍被認為是現代印度教的前身，但兩者並不相同，因文本證據顯示兩者之間存在顯著差異。 這些差異包括吠陀宗教原本信仰死后生命，而非後來發展出的轉世與轮回概念。然而，儘管「歷史上通常認為，現代印度教的起源約在西元初期」，當時「各種關鍵傾向與核心要素匯聚形成了印度教傳統」，但部分學者也開始主張，「印度教」一詞應涵蓋吠陀教與婆羅門教，以及後來的綜合體。

起源與發展

更多信息：印度-雅利安人、印度-雅利安人迁徙、吠陀文化和原始印欧宗教

印度-雅利安吠陀宗教

吠陀宗教是指部分吠陀時期印度-雅利安人部族（ārya）的宗教信仰。這些部族於印度河流域文明衰亡之後遷徙至印度次大陸的印度河流域。 吠陀宗教與後來的婆羅門教，以《吠陀》經典中的神話與儀式思想為核心，與依據非吠陀文本發展出的阿迦摩教派、怛特羅密教以及各種宗派性印度宗教形式有所區別。

吠陀宗教內容載於吠陀文獻中，並與大量的吠陀文學（包括早期的奥义书）相關，這些文獻由各祭司學派傳承至今。 該宗教於早期吠陀時期（約西元前1500年至1100年）在恒河平原西部地區存在， 並於晚期吠陀時期（約西元前1100年至500年）發展為婆羅門教。

恒河平原東部地區則由另一支印度-雅利安文化主導，其拒絕後期婆羅門教的意識形態，並孕育出耆那教與佛教，以及後來的孔雀王朝。

Indo-European roots and syncreticism

The Indo-Aryans were speakers of a branch of the Indo-European language family which originated in the Sintashta culture and further developed into the Andronovo culture, which in turn developed out of the Kurgan culture of the Central Asian steppes. The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE.

The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesized Proto-Indo-European religion, and shows relations with rituals from the Andronovo culture, from which the Indo-Aryan people descended. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran. It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements" which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana culture (BMAC). This syncretic influence is supported by at least 383 non-Indo-European words that were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink soma. According to Anthony,

Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.

The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, are found in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom. The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving. The Old Indic term r'ta, meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the Rig Veda, was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom. Old Indic gods, including Indra, were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.

South Asian influences

The Vedic religion was the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations". White (2003) cites three other scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley civilization.

It is unclear if the theory in diverse Vedic texts actually reflect the folk practices, iconography, and other practical aspects of the Vedic religion. The Vedic religion changed when Indo-Aryan people migrated into the Ganges Plain after 约 1100 BCE and became settled farmers, further syncretizing with the native cultures of northern India. The evidence suggests that the Vedic religion evolved in "two superficially contradictory directions", namely an ever more "elaborate, expensive, and specialized system of rituals", which survives in the present-day srauta-ritual, and "abstraction and internalization of the principles underlying ritual and cosmic speculation" within oneself, akin to the Jain and Buddhist tradition.

Aspects of the historical Vedic religion still continue in modern times. For instance, the Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals, and the complex Vedic rituals of Śrauta are practised in Kerala and coastal Andhra. The Kalash people residing in northwest Pakistan also continue to practise a form of the ancient Vedic religion. It has also been suggested by Michael Witzel that Shinto, the native religion of Japan, contains some influences from the ancient Vedic religion.

Brahmanism

「Brahamic」重定向至此。关于the writing scripts，请见「Brahmic scripts」。

「Brahmanism」重定向至此，您可能想尋找頁面Branhamism。

Historical Brahminism

Brahmanism, also called Brahminism or Brahmanical Hinduism, developed out of the Vedic religion, incorporating non-Vedic religious ideas, and expanding to a region stretching from the northwest Indian subcontinent to the Ganges valley. Brahmanism included the Vedic corpus, but also post-Vedic texts such as the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras, which gave prominence to the priestly (Brahmin) caste of the society, Heesterman also mentions the post-Vedic Smriti (Puranas and the Epics), which are also incorporated in the later Smarta tradition. The emphasis on ritual and the dominant position of Brahmins developed as an ideology in the Kuru-Pancala realm, and expanded over a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala kingdom and its incorporation into the Magadha-based empires. It co-existed with local religions, such as the Yaksha cults.

The word Brahmanism was coined by Gonçalo Fernandes Trancoso (1520–1596) in the 16th century. Historically, and still by some modern authors, the word 'Brahmanism' was used in English to refer to the Hindu religion, treating the term Brahmanism as synonymous with Hinduism, and using it interchangeably. Michael S. Allen criticises the use of "Brahminism" for the "greater Vedic tradition", arguing that it obscures the contribution of non-Brahmins to the tradition. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Brahminism was the most common term used in English for Hinduism. Brahmanism gave importance to Absolute Reality (Brahman) speculations in the early Upanishads, as these terms are etymologically linked, which developed from post-Vedic ideas during the late Vedic era. The concept of Brahman is posited as that which existed before the creation of the universe, which constitutes all of existence thereafter, and into which the universe will dissolve, followed by similar endless creation-maintenance-destruction cycles.

The post-Vedic period of the Second Urbanisation saw a decline of Brahmanism. With the growth of political entities, which threatened the income and patronage of the rural Brahmins including; the Sramanic movement, the conquests of eastern empires from Magadha including the Nanda Empire and the Mauryan Empire, and also invasions and foreign rule of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent which brought in new political entities. This was overcome by providing new services and incorporating the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and local religious traditions, giving rise to contemporary Hinduism. This "new Brahmanism" appealed to rulers, who were attracted to the supernatural powers and the practical advice Brahmins could provide, and resulted in a resurgence of Brahmanical influence, dominating Indian society since the classical Age of Hinduism in the early centuries CE.

As a polemical term

Nowadays, the term Brahmanism, used interchangeably with Brahminism, is used in several ways. It denotes the specific Brahmanical rituals and worldview as preserved in the Śrauta ritual, as distinct from the wide range of popular cultic activity with little connection with them. Brahminism also refers specifically to the Brahminical ideology, which sees Brahmins as naturally privileged people entitled to rule and dominate society. The term is frequently used by anti-Brahmin opponents, who object against their domination of Indian society and their exclusivist ideology. They follow the outline of 19th century colonial rulers, who viewed India's culture as corrupt and degenerate, and its population as irrational. In this view, derived from a Christian understanding of religion, the original "God-given religion" was corrupted by priests, in this case Brahmins, and their religion, "Brahminism", which was supposedly imposed on the Indian population. Reformist Hindus, and others such as Ambedkar, structured their criticism along similar lines.

Textual history

A Yupa sacrificial post of the time of Vasishka, 3rd century CE. Isapur, near Mathura. Mathura Museum.

Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in Vedic Sanskrit, are mainly the four Vedic Samhitas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and some of the older Upanishads are also placed in this period. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices. These texts are also considered as a part of the scripture of contemporary Hinduism.

Who really knows?
Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
— Nasadiya Sukta, Rig Veda, 10:129-6

Characteristics

参见：Proto-Indo-Iranian religion

The idea of reincarnation, or saṃsāra, is not mentioned in the early layers of the historic Vedic religion texts such as the Rigveda. The later layers of the Rigveda do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade.

The early layers of the Vedas do not mention the doctrine of Karma and rebirth, but mention the belief in an afterlife. According to Sayers, these earliest layers of the Vedic literature show ancestor worship and rites such as sraddha (offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as the Aranyakas and the Upanisads show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals. The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in the Upanishads of the late Vedic period, predating the Buddha and the Mahavira. Similarly, the later layers of the Vedic literature such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (约 800 BCE) – such as in section 4.4 – discuss the earliest versions of the Karma doctrine as well as causality.

The ancient Vedic religion lacked the belief in reincarnation and concepts such as Saṃsāra or Nirvana. It was a complex animistic religion with polytheistic and pantheistic aspects. Ancestor worship was an important, maybe the central component, of the ancient Vedic religion. Elements of the ancestors cult are still common in modern Hinduism in the form of Śrāddha.

According to Olivelle, some scholars state that the renouncer tradition was an "organic and logical development of ideas found in the Vedic religious culture", while others state that these emerged from the "indigenous non-Aryan population". This scholarly debate is a longstanding one, and is ongoing.

Rituals

主条目：Yajurveda和yajna

A Śrauta yajna being performed in Kerala

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others:

• Fire rituals involving oblations (havir):
  • The Agnyadheya, or installation of the fire
  • The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni, a sun charm
  • The Darshapurnamsa, the new and full moon sacrifices
  • The four seasonal (Cāturmāsya) sacrifices
  • The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the fire altar
• The Pashubandhu, the (semi-)annual animal sacrifice
• The Soma rituals, which involved the extraction, utility and consumption of Soma:
  • The Jyotishtoma
    • The Agnishtoma
      • The Pravargya (originally an independent rite, later absorbed into the soma rituals)
    • The Ukthya
    • The Sodashin
    • The Atyagnishtoma
    • The Atiratra
    • The Aptoryama
    • The Vajapeya
• The royal consecration (Rajasuya) sacrifice
• The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) or a Yajna dedicated to the glory, wellbeing and prosperity of the kingdom or empire
• The Purushamedha
• The rituals and charms referred to in the Atharvaveda are concerned with medicine and healing practices
• The Gomedha or cow sacrifice:
  • The Taittiriya Brahmana of the Yajur Veda gives instructions for selecting the cow for the sacrifice depending on the deity.
  • Panchasaradiya sava – celebration where 17 cows are immolated once every five years. The Taittiriya Brahmana advocates the Panchasaradiya for those who want to be great.
  • Sulagava – sacrifice where roast beef is offered. It is mentioned in the Grihya Sutra
  • According to Dr. R. Mitra, the offered animal was intended for consumption as detailed in the Asvalayana Sutra. The Gopatha Brahmana lists the different individuals who are to receive the various parts like Pratiharta (neck and hump), the Udgatr, the Neshta, the Sadasya, the householder who performs the sacrifice (the two right feet), his wife (the two left feet) and so on.

The Hindu rites of cremation are seen since the Rigvedic period; while they are attested from early times in the Cemetery H culture, there is a late Rigvedic reference invoking forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)". (RV 10.15.14)

Pantheon

主条目：Rigvedic deities

Detail of the Phra Prang, the central tower of the Wat Arun ("Temple of Dawn") in Bangkok, Thailand, showing the ancient Vedic god Indra and three-headed Erawan (Airavata).

Though a large number of names for devas occur in the Rigveda, only 33 devas are counted, eleven each of earth, space, and heaven. The Vedic pantheon knows two classes, Devas and Asuras. The Devas (Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga, Amsa, etc.) are deities of cosmic and social order, from the universe and kingdoms down to the individual. The Rigveda is a collection of hymns to various deities, most notably heroic Indra, Agni the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods, and Soma, the deified sacred drink of the Indo-Iranians. Also prominent is Varuna (often paired with Mitra) and the group of "All-gods", the Vishvadevas.

Sages

参见：Timeline of Eastern philosophers § Vedic Period

In the Hindu tradition, the revered sages of this era were Yajnavalkya, Atharvan, Atri, Bharadvaja, Gautama Maharishi, Jamadagni, Kashyapa, Vasistha, Bhrigu, Kutsa, Pulastya, Kratu, Pulaha, Vishwamitra Narayana, Kanva, Rishabha, Vamadeva, and Angiras.

Ethics – satya and rta

参见：Asha和ṛta

Ethics in the Vedas are based on concepts like satya and ṛta.

In the Vedas and later sutras, the meaning of the word satya (सत्य) evolves into an ethical concept about truthfulness and is considered an important virtue. It means being true and consistent with reality in one's thought, speech and action.

Vedic ṛtá and its Avestan equivalent aša are both thought by some to derive from Proto-Indo-Iranian *Hr̥tás "truth", which in turn may continue from a possible Proto-Indo-European *h₂r-tós "properly joined, right, true", from a presumed root *h₂er-. The derivative noun ṛta is defined as "fixed or settled order, rule, divine law or truth". As Mahony (1998) notes, however, the term can be translated as "that which has moved in a fitting manner" – although this meaning is not actually cited by authoritative Sanskrit dictionaries it is a regular derivation from the verbal root -, and abstractly as "universal law" or "cosmic order", or simply as "truth". The latter meaning dominates in the Avestan cognate to Ṛta, aša.

Owing to the nature of Vedic Sanskrit, the term Ṛta can be used to indicate numerous things, either directly or indirectly, and both Indian and European scholars have experienced difficulty in arriving at fitting interpretations for Ṛta in all of its various usages in the Vedas, though the underlying sense of "ordered action" remains universally evident.

The term is also found in the Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples. The term dharma was already used in the later Brahmanical thoughts, where it was conceived as an aspect of ṛta.

Vedic mythology

The central myth at the base of Vedic ritual surrounds Indra who, inebriated by Soma, slays the dragon (ahi) Vritra, freeing the rivers, the cows, and Dawn.

Vedic mythology contains numerous elements which are common to Indo-European mythological traditions, like the mythologies of Persia, Greece, and Rome, and those of the Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic peoples. The Vedic god Indra in part corresponds to Dyaus Pitar, the Sky Father, Zeus, Jupiter, Thor and Tyr, or Perun. The deity Yama, the lord of the dead, is hypothesized to be related to Yima of Persian mythology. Vedic hymns refer to these and other deities, often 33, consisting of 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas, and in the late Rigvedas, Prajapati. These deities belong to the 3 regions of the universe or heavens, the earth, and the intermediate space.

Some major deities of the Vedic tradition include Indra, Dyaus, Surya, Agni, Ushas, Vayu, Varuna, Mitra, Aditi, Yama, Soma, Sarasvati, Prithvi, and Rudra.

Post-Vedic religions

The hymn 10.85 of the Rigveda includes the Vivaha-sukta (above). Its recitation continues to be a part of Hindu wedding rituals.

The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BCE. The period between 800 BCE and 200 BCE is the formative period for later Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. According to Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "ascetic reformism", while the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions". Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period", when "traditional religious practices and beliefs were reassessed. The Brahmins and the rituals they performed no longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in the Vedic period".

Brahmanism evolved into Hinduism, which is significantly different from the preceding Brahmanism, though "it is also convenient to have a single term for the whole complex of interrelated traditions." The transition from ancient Brahmanism to schools of Hinduism was a form of evolution in interaction with non-Vedic traditions. This transition preserved many central ideas and theosophy found in the Vedas while synergistically integrating non-Vedic ideas. While part of Hinduism, Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism share their concern with escape from the suffering of existence with Buddhism.

Continuation of orthodox ritual

主条目：Śrauta

According to Axel Michaels, the Vedic gods declined but did not disappear, and local cults were assimilated into the Vedic-Brahmanic pantheon, which changed into the Hindu pantheon. Deities such as Shiva and Vishnu became more prominent and gave rise to Shaivism and Vaishnavism.

According to David Knipe, some communities in India have preserved and continue to practice portions of the historical Vedic religion, as observed in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh states and elsewhere. According to the historian and Sanskrit linguist Michael Witzel, some of the rituals of the Kalash people have elements of the historical Vedic religion, but there are also some differences such as the presence of fire next to the altar instead of "in the altar" as in the Vedic religion.

Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta

Mīmāṃsā philosophers argue that there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Vedas or a god to validate the rituals. Mīmāṃsā argues that the gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of gods.

Of the continuation of the Vedic tradition in the Upanishads, Fowler writes the following:

“ Despite the radically different nature of the Upanishads in relation to the Vedas it has to be remembered that the material of both form the Veda or "knowledge" which is sruti literature. So the Upanishads develop the ideas of the Vedas beyond their ritual formalism and should not be seen as isolated from them. The fact that the Vedas that are more particularly emphasized in the Vedanta: the efficacy of the Vedic ritual is not rejected, it is just that there is a search for the Reality that informs it. ”

The Upanishads gradually evolved into Vedanta, which is one of the primary schools of thought within Hinduism. Vedanta considers itself "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas".

Sramana tradition

主条目：Śramaṇa、Jainism、Buddhism和Ājīvika

The non-Vedic śramaṇa traditions existed alongside Brahmanism. These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but movements with mutual influences with Brahmanical traditions, reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India". Jainism and Buddhism evolved out of the Shramana tradition.

There are Jaina references to 22 prehistoric tirthankaras. In this view, Jainism peaked at the time of Mahavira (traditionally put in the 6th century BCE). Buddhism, traditionally put from c. 500 BCE, declined in India over the 5th to 12th centuries in favor of Puranic Hinduism and Islam.

參見

• Pushyamitra Shunga
• Ancient Iranian religion
• Hinduism in Iran
• Iranian mythology
• Rishikesh Complex of Ruru Kshetra – Vedic ritual site in Nepal
• Vedic priesthood
• A Vedic Word Concordance
• Zoroastrianism

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